1. 求國際貿易類 英文文獻及翻譯一篇,5000字左右
一、電子商務對國際貿易的影響1
（一） 電子商務的內涵與特點1
（二） 電子商務對國際貿易的影響6
二、中國發展電子商務的現狀及存在的問題11
（一）我國電子商務的發展現狀11
（二） 存在的問題12
（三） 中國對外貿易的重新定位15
三、中國利用電子商務促進對外貿易的策略17
（一） 電子商務在出口貿易中的效益體現17
（二）開拓新的國際市場要求發展無紙貿易17
（三）迎接挑戰的對策19
結論23
致謝24
參考文獻25
附錄一26
附錄二31
摘 要
在向信息經濟世界的轉變過程中，傳統商務由於存在太多的弊端，已經不能勝任現時條件下的貿易環境。電子商務作為網際網路技術發展日益成熟的直接結果，是未來商業發展的新方向。
電子商務（Electronic Commence）是一種以電子數據交換EDI和Internet網上交易為主要內容的全新商務模式。其體現的開放性、全球性、地域性、低成本和高效率等內在特徵，在符合商業經濟內在要求的同時，還使其超越了作為一種新的貿易形式所具有的價值。它不僅改變了企業本身的生產、經營、管理，而且對傳統的貿易方式帶來沖擊。其最明顯的標志就是增加了貿易機會、降低貿易成本、提高貿易效益。在帶動經濟結構變革的同時，對整個現代經濟生活產生了巨大而且深遠的影響。
對此，中國作為經濟正在發展的貿易大國，在電子商務的挑戰之下，要同時面對其帶來的壓力和機遇，進行自我調整，以求跟上其快速變革的步伐。要大力發展電子商務，在今後的貿易競爭中占據主動，應拿出自己的舉措，以贏得和發達國家站在同一起跑線上的機會。
關鍵詞 電子商務 數據交換 網際網路 國際貿易
Abstract
In the shifting to information economy, traditional commerce is out of the steps of time because of its lot shortcomings. As the direct result from the development of cyber internet technology, EC (Electronic Commerce) is the new direction of future business.
EC includes EDI (Electronic Data Interchange) and business on web. It is a definitely new business model. Its inner nature such as global, regional, low cost and high efficiency make it more valuable than its virtual value as a new business model. At the same time, it is also accord with demands from business. EC not only changes procing, management, but impact on traditional commerce model. The most obvious symbol is increase business opportunities, decrease of trading cost, and getting more business profits. It leads profound affection to the whole economic life when it changes economic structure.
China wants to be a great developing trading nation. It is necessary to act activity. We need making strategy to face EC, to face the impact, the pressure and chances in order to control our foreign business policies.
Justify by us in order to follow EC steps in developing. That is the right way for us to challenge with other developed countries.
Key word Electronic Commerce Electronic Data Interchange Internet
International trading
（三）中國對外貿易的重新定位
中國的貿易必須在世界貿易從傳統貿易向國際網路貿易轉化中重新為自己定位，就是使中國貿易從傳統貿易轉化為網路貿易。為此，我們要積極推進中國貿易從傳統貿易向國際網路貿易的革命性的轉化，這一推進要通過市場與政府有效結合的方式來進行。值得指出的是，中國已經初步地「嘗到了網路貿易的甜頭」，1998年1~5月份，中國的出口本來應該受亞洲貨幣金融危機的影響而有較大幅度的下降，但是，1998年1~5月份中國的外貿進出口卻保持著增長，據海關統計，1998年1~5月份，中國外貿進出口總值達1 236.9億美元，比去年同期增長5.4%，其中出口711.1億美元，增長8.6%，進口525.8%億美元，增長1.5%，其中一個重要的決定因素就是，中國在1998年的春季廣交會上，利用互聯網向全球2 000多家外商發出了電子郵件，這使得在東南亞金融危機後的這次廣交會的出席人數達6.5萬人，為歷年廣交會人數最多的一次。在這次廣交會上，中國同東南亞和韓國達成的交易額下降了60%，而同歐洲、美洲、中東、非洲的交易額則增長20%~30%。佔中國出口四成的本次廣交會出口成交額比上年增長10%以上。據海關統計，1998年1~4月份，中國對亞洲出口增長4.8%，對亞洲出口的比重比去年同期下降了4.6%，而對歐洲、美國、非洲、南美的出口卻分別增長了29.6%、22.7%、33.9%、40.1%，它們佔中國外貿出口的比重也有一定幅度的增加，很顯然，中國外貿的這一變化是與對國際互聯網電子郵件利用密切相關的。中國外經貿部宣布「中國商品市場」已於1998年7月8日正式進入網際網路，它將成為目前網際網路上最大的中國商品資料庫，向外商展示中國商品信息，這為許多企業進入網路，提供了新機會。這一「中國商品市場」就利用網路發布信息這一形式而言，與中國已有的在網路上建立站點發布信息的企業一樣。很明顯，對於它們都有或將有從發布信息，深化到銷售產品和以網路為基礎的企業業務往來、企業間培訓、客戶培訓、售後服務等商務活動的必要。這也是應該挖掘網路收益的一個取向，既要利用網路來捕捉更多的貿易機會，擴大市場的范圍，又要通過網路來使得比較優勢和競爭優勢升級。另外，一定要注意網路安全問題。還有，也是至關重要的，中國應對網路貿易立法，且對已存在的對外貿易法進行修改。有理由相信，隨著中國外貿逐步地從傳統貿易轉化為網路貿易，中國網路貿易的發展必然使中國的貿易呈現出一種新的局面.
英文是:
With economic development and the progress of the times, people of the original concept of marriage constantly being challenged, while the concept of legal system is further strengthened. Due to various reasons, divorce cases each year are on the rise, the husband and wife in a divorce case and deal with common property that has become increasingly difficult, reflected by the status of more and more important, it has a bearing on social stability and unity, and economic construction can proceed smoothly. Debt Settlement of joint processing and housing is dealt with divorce, division of property compared the two main issues, the 2001 Marriage Law, promulgated and implemented the new sound of the old Marriage Law of the many deficiencies, but its institutional division of property in a divorce there are still some shortcomings. Therefore, the perfect family property system and properly handle the divorce, division of matrimonial property has strong practical significance.
2. 求關於國際貿易英文文獻（急急急）在線等候
淺探當代國際貿易新理論對我國對外貿易戰略的啟示
在我國對外貿易規模不斷擴大的今天，要想提高我國的國際競爭力，必須重視國際上20世紀70年代以後興起的國際貿易新理論，實施創新的對外貿易戰略，打造具有國際競爭優勢的產業。本文通過研究當代國際貿易理論的新發展對我國外貿發展的啟示，分析探討了我國應該如何制定相應的政策，採取相應的對策來促進我國對外貿易的發展。
一、當代國際貿易理論的新進展
二戰後隨著科學技術的進步和生產力的不斷發展，國際貿易的規模、商品結構和地區分布也發生了很大變化。經濟學家在國際貿易理論研究中不斷探索，20世紀70年代以來先後出現的影響較大的國際貿易新理論有以下幾種：
1、戰略性貿易政策理論
戰略性貿易政策理論產生於2O世紀7O年代以來「新貿易保護主義」盛行的背景之下，由美國經濟學家保羅·克魯格曼等人於2O世紀8O年代中期提出，主要內容包括兩方面：（1）以內部規模經濟為基礎的利潤轉移理論；（2）以外部規模經濟為基礎的外部經濟理論。
2、產業內貿易理論
20世紀70年代格魯貝爾和勞埃德等人開創了產業內貿易理論研究，到20世紀80年代初美國經濟學家克魯格曼進一步推動了這一理論的發展。該理論不同於側重論述產業間貿易的傳統貿易理論，代寫畢業論文它側重研究貿易雙方在同一產業中既出口又進口同類異質產品的產業內貿易。在不完全競爭產業中，規模經濟和產品差異是產業內貿易形成的決定因素。
3、產品生命周期理論
產品生命周期理論由美國銷售學家弗農於1966年首先提出，經威爾斯、赫希哲等人不斷完善。產品生命周期理論認為，由於技術創新和擴散，製成品和生物一樣具有生命周期。產品生命周期包括五個階段：(1)新生期；(2)成長期；(3)成熟期；(4)銷售下降期；(5)讓與期。
4、國家競爭優勢理論
20世紀80年代以來，美國哈佛大學的邁克爾·波特提出並完善了國家競爭優勢理論。國家競爭優勢理論與傳統比較優勢理論和要素稟賦理論不同之處在於，該理論認為一個國家之所以能夠興旺發達，其根本原因在於該國的國際競爭優勢，這種競爭優勢源於一個相互增強的系統，在這個系統中，有四個關鍵因素影響一國在國際市場上建立和保持競爭優勢的能力，這四個因素是：(1)生產要素；(2)國內需求；(3)相關產業；(4)企業戰略、組織和競爭度。
二、當代國際貿易新理論對我國對外貿易戰略的啟示
1、積極轉化國家的競爭優勢
比較優勢是由一國資源稟賦和交易條件所決定的靜態優勢，是獲取競爭優勢的條件。競爭優勢則是一種將潛在優勢轉化為現實優勢的綜合能力的作用結果。比較優勢作為一種潛在優勢，只有最終轉化為競爭優勢，才能形成真正的出口競爭力。根據生產要素稟賦，我國一直以來具有勞動力資源的比較優勢，但是，在當今國際市場上勞動密集型產品的比較優勢並不一定具有國際競爭優勢。要確立把比較優勢轉換為競爭優勢的外貿戰略。
2、高新技術產業發展至關重要
由國際產品生命周期理論可以推知：創新國是國際貿易利益的最大獲益者。這是因為：在產品的新生期和成長期，創新國以其技術優勢壟斷了國內和國際市場，因而可以獲得大量超額壟斷利潤；在產品的成熟期進入所謂的「大規模生產」階段，創新國可以獲得巨額規模經濟效益；在產品的銷售下降期和讓與期，創新國在國外投資建廠，輸出其知識產權和品牌，延長其產品的生命周期，在國際市場上繼續賺取利潤。
3、發展高層次產業內貿易是提高對外貿易競爭力的重要手段
隨著國際經濟貿易的發展，產業內貿易在給各貿易國帶來貿易利益的同時，
Probe into New Theory of International Trade Implications of China Foreign Trade Strategy
Growing scale of foreign trade in China today, in order to enhance China's international competitiveness, must pay attention to the international community 70 years after the 20th century Xingqi new theory of international trade, the implementation of the Duiwaimaoyi innovation strategy, create an international competitive advantage in the instry. This paper studies the contemporary new development of international trade theory enlightenment for the development of China's foreign trade, analysis of how China should formulate corresponding policies and take corresponding measures to promote the development of China's foreign trade.
First, the contemporary theory of international trade, new progress
After World War II with the scientific and technological progress and proctivity of the continuous development of international trade size, structure and regional distribution of goods, great changes have taken place. Theory of international trade economist and continuously explore the 20th century, has emerged since the 70's influential new theory of international trade, the following:
1, Strategic Trade Policy
Strategic trade policy arise from 7O 2O century since the "new trade protectionism," the prevalence of background, the U.S. economist Paul Krugman, who in the mid 8O 2O century, proposed, mainly including two aspects : (1) internal economies of scale-based theory of profit transfer; (2) based on external economies of scale external economic theory.
2, intra-instry trade theory
20th century 70s Grubel and Lloyd, who created the instry trade theory, to the early 20th century U.S. economist Paul Krugman of 80 to further promote the development of this theory. The theory is different from the focus on inter-instry trade paper the traditional trade theory, on behalf of my thesis research is focused on trade, both sides in the same instry, the export of procts they import the same heterogeneous instry trade. Not perfectly competitive instries, economies of scale and proct differentiation is the formation of intra-instry trade determinants.
3, the proct life cycle theory
Proct life cycle theory Sales Vernon by the United States first proposed in 1966 by Prince, He Xizhe and others improved. Proct life cycle theory, as technological innovation and diffusion, and biological procts, like life-cycle. Proct life cycle consists of five stages: (1) Neonatal; (2) growth stage; (3) maturity; (4) decline of sales; (5) for and on.
4, Competitive Advantage of Nations
Since the 80s of the 20th century, Harvard's Michael Porter and improve the Competitive Advantage of Nations. Competitive Advantage of Nations and the traditional theory of comparative advantage and factor endowments theory of difference is, the theory that a country has been able to flourish, and the fundamental reason is the country's international competitive advantage, this competitive advantage derived from a mutually reinforcing system, in this system, there are four key factors that affect a country in the international market, establish and maintain a competitive edge in the ability of these four factors are: (1) factors of proction; (2) domestic demand; (3) related instries ; (4) business strategy, organizational and competitive degree.
Second, the contemporary theory of international trade on China's foreign trade strategy for new inspiration
1, the positive transformation of the national competitive advantage
Comparative advantage in natural resources by a country and trading conditions determine the static strengths are the conditions for competitive advantage. Competitive advantage is a way to advantage the potential into real ability to effect the comprehensive results. Comparative advantage as a potential advantage, only the final into a competitive advantage, to form a real export competitiveness. According to the proction factor endowment, along with China's comparative advantage in labor resources, but in today's international market, the comparative advantage of labor-intensive procts do not necessarily have an international competitive advantage. To establish the comparative advantages into competitive advantages in foreign trade strategy.
2, high-tech instries vital to the development
By the international proct life cycle theory can be deced: Innovation is the international trade interests of the country's biggest winners. This is because: the proct of Neonatal and growth, innovation and technical superiority of its state monopoly of domestic and international markets, and thus get a lot of excess monopoly profits; in proct maturity into the so-called "mass proction" stage, innovation States can get huge economies of scale; in proct sales were down period and give and of innovation invest and build factories in foreign countries, the output of its intellectual property and brand to extend its proct life Zhou Qi, in the international market continue to make a profit.
3, the development of high-level intra-instry trade is to improve the competitiveness of an important means of foreign trade
With the international economic and trade development, intra-instry trade in all trading nations to bring trade interests,
翻譯為：
3. 滿分求一篇對外貿易類的英文文獻
Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits
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The Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits (UCP) is a set of rules on the issuance and use of letters of credit. The UCP is utilised by bankers and commercial parties in more than 175 countries in trade finance. Some 11-15% of international trade utilises letters of credit, totalling over a trillion dollars (US) each year.
Historically, the commercial parties, particularly banks, have developed the techniques and methods for handling letters of credit in international trade finance. This practice has been standardized by the ICC (International Chamber of Commerce) by publishing the UCP in 1933 and subsequently updating it throughout the years. The ICC has developed and moulded the UCP by regular revisions, the current version being the UCP600. The result is the most successful international attempt at unifying rules ever, as the UCP has substantially universal effect. The latest revision was approved by the Banking Commission of the ICC at its meeting in Paris on 25 October 2006. This latest version, called the UCP600, formally commenced on 1 July 2007.
ICC and the UCP
A significant function of the ICC is the preparation and promotion of its uniform rules of practice. The ICC』s aim is to provide a codification of international practice occasionally selecting the best practice after ample debate and consideration. The ICC rules of practice are designed by bankers and merchants and not by legislatures with political and local considerations. The rules accordingly demonstrate the needs, customs and practices of business. Because the rules are incorporated voluntarily into contracts, the rules are flexible while providing a stable base for international review, including judicial scrutiny. International revision is thus facilitated permitting the incorporation of the changing practices of the commercial parties. ICC, which was established in 1919, had as its primary objective facilitating the flow of international trade at a time when nationalism and protectionism threatened the easing of world trade. It was in that spirit that the UCP were first introced – to alleviate the confusion caused by indivial countries』 promoting their own national rules on letter of credit practice. The aim was to create a set of contractual rules that would establish uniformity in practice, so that there would be less need to cope with often conflicting national regulations. The universal acceptance of the UCP by practitioners in countries with widely divergent economic and judicial systems is a testament to the rules』 success.
UCP600
The latest revision of UCP is the sixth revision of the rules since they were first promulgated in 1933. It is the fruit of more than three years of work by the ICC's Commission on Banking Technique and Practice.
The UCP remain the most successful set of private rules for trade ever developed. A range of indivials and groups contributed to the current revision including: the UCP Drafting Group, which waded through more than 5000 indivial comments before arriving at this final text; the UCP Consulting Group, consisting of members from more than 25 countries, which served as the advisory body; the more than 400 members of the ICC Commission on Banking Technique and Practice who made pertinent suggestions for changes in the text; and 130 ICC National Committees worldwide which took an active role in consolidating comments from their members.
During the revision process, notice was taken of the considerable work that had been completed in creating the International Standard Banking Practice for the Examination of Documents under Documentary Credits (ISBP), ICC Publication 645. This publication has evolved into a necessary companion to the UCP for determining compliance of documents with the terms of letters of credit. It is the expectation of the Drafting Group and the Banking Commission that the application of the principles contained in the ISBP, including subsequent revisions thereof, will continue ring the time UCP 600 is in force. At the time UCP 600 is implemented, there will be an updated version of the ISBP to bring its contents in line with the substance and style of the new rules.
Comment:
Note that UCP600 does not automatically apply to a credit if the credit is silent as to which set of rules it is subject to. A credit issued by SWIFT MT700 is no longer subject by default to the current UCP – it has to be indicated in field 40E, which is designated for specifying the "applicable rules".
Where a credit is issued subject to UCP600, the credit will be interpreted in accordance with the entire set of 39 articles contained in UCP600. However, exception to the rules can be made by express modification or exclusion. For example, the parties to a credit may agree that the rest of the credit shall remain valid despite the beneficiary's failure to deliver an instalment. In such case, the credit has to nullify the effect of article 32 of UCP600, such as by wording the credit as: "The credit will continue to be available for the remaining instalments notwithstanding the beneficiary's failure to present complied documents of an instalment in accordance with the instalment schele."
eUCP
The eUCP was developed as a supplement to UCP e to the strong sense at the time that banks and corporates together with the transport and insurance instries were ready to utilise electronic commerce. The hope and expectation that surrounded the development of eUCP has failed to materialise into day to day transactions and its usage has been, to put it mildly, minimal. Owing to this lack of usage, it was felt that this was not the right time to incorporate the eUCP into the UCP600 and it will remain as a supplement albeit slightly amended to identify its relationship with UCP600.
An updated version of the eUCP came into effect on 1 July 2007 to coincide the commencement of the UCP600. There are no substantive changes to the eUCP, merely references to the UCP600.
CDCS
The Certified Documentary Credit Specialist is a qualification awarded by IFSA US and IFS UK and endorsed by ICC Paris as the only International qualification for Trade Finance Professionals, recognising the competence, and ensuring best practice. It requires Re-Certification every Three years. UCP 600 rules will be included from April 2008 examinations only. CDCS requires some 4–6 months of independent study and a pass in 3 hour examination of 120 multiple choice questions as well as 3 in basket exercises with questions which demonstrate skill in real-world applications of UCP.
4. 誰有 關於國際經濟與貿易的英文參考文獻 最好附帶漢語翻譯 3000字左右 可以發到我的郵箱[email protected]
At present, the world economy is moving to the new trend of regional blocs and economic integration.
Currently, the economic integration is graally breaking continental limits to the Pan-Africa direction.
The development of international economic integration will inevitably lead to deeper integration of its internal trade barriers and strengthening the al result of external, leading to non-group increasing competition among countries, protectionism is rampant. These are constraints of the international economy, especially the freedom of foreign economic development in developing countries.
5. 急求一篇 國際貿易出口問題的英文文獻 5000英文單詞左右 及其中文翻譯
國際貿易相關英語詞彙
accepting bank 承兌銀行 adept 內行 alterated 冒充物
agreement 同意書 air parcel 航空郵包 amendment修正書
area 面積 bankrupt 破產 beneficiary 受益人
bilateral trade 雙邊貿易 bill of landing 提單 bill of exchange匯票
billing 開發票 blind competition惡性競爭 boom 生意興隆
delay延誤 shoes store 鞋子專賣店 breakage破損
air cargo 航空貨運 certificate of origin原產地證明 bulk cargo 散裝貨
discount折扣 business is inactive 市面蕭條 buyer買主
cancel 取消 can not afford 買不起 capacity 容積
capture market 爭取市場 certificate fee 簽證費 certificate of inspection檢驗證
claim 索賠 close 結關 close date 結關日
close door 歇業 collection 托收 confirm 確認
commercial credit 商用信用 commission 傭金 consignee 收貨人
consumer 消費者 contract 合約 container 貨櫃
costprice 成本價 cost & freight 貨運及運費 cost & insurance 貨價及保險
cost insurance & freight (CIF)成本保險費加運費價 counter 貨櫃台
counterfeit 仿冒 customer 顧客 customs 海關
customer broker 報送行 dealer 販賣商 deferred payment 延遲付款
deficit 虧空 delivery date 交貨期 deliver from go down 出倉
department store 百貨公司 depression 不景氣 destination 目的地
direct trade 直接貿易 distribution 分銷 documentary 押匯
documentary acceptance bill 承況匯單 documentary payment bill 付款匯單
double check 復查 drawee 付款人 mping 傾銷
enlarge 擴充 export 出口 exporter 出口商
export declaration 出品申請書 faulty goods 劣足跡 foreign exchange 外匯
free on board (FOB，離岸價) gross weight 毛重 handle with care 小心輕放
horizontal competition 同業競爭 import 進口 importer 進口商
import permit 進品許可證 indirect trade 間接進口 inquiry sheet 詢價單
inspector 驗貨員 inspection sheet 檢驗單 instalment 分期付款
international trade foreign trade 國際貿易 invoice 發票
limited price 限價 loading port 輸出口岸 main mark 正嘜
manufacture 製造 marg in profit 利潤 managenment 管理制度
manufacturer 製造商 market 市價 mass proction 大量生產
multilateral trade 多邊貿易 negotiated purchase 議價 netback price 廠價
net weight 凈重 no transshipment permitted 不準轉運
nominal price 標價 notary 公證人 offer 報價
on board 已裝船 only one price 不二價 open tender 公開投標
order 訂單 output 產量 packing list 包裝單
partialloss 部分損失 payee 收款人 penalty 違約金，罰金
paying bank 付款銀行 peak season 旺季 place of delivery 交貨地點
post office 郵局 price bargain 討價還價 price cutting 減價，削價
price list 價目表 process 流程 proction control 生產管制
proforma invoice（一般譯為「形式發票」簡寫為「PI」） purchase 購買
quality control 品質管制 received for shipment 待裝船 reced price 減價
regular customer 老主顧 reorganization 改組 repacking 改裝
restricted tender 比價 resume business 復業 retail 零售
returned check 退票 retailer 零售商 sale 銷售
rock bottom price 最低價 sale on credit 賒賬 salesman 推銷員
sea port 港口 service 服務 segment delivery 分批交貨
shipper 貨主 shipping advice 裝船通知 shipping company 船務公司或海運公司 shipping date 裝船日期 shipping dock 裝船碼頭
shipping document 裝船文件 shoddy 粗製濫造 unpacking開箱
shopping rush 搶購 shortage 缺量 yielding 獲利
show window 櫥窗 slack season 淡季 special customs invoice 海關特種發票 specification 規格 standard brand 正牌子
steady 穩定 stock 存貨 stylist 款式設計師
supplier 供應商 supply & demand 供求 terminal market 批發市場
telegraphic transfer 電匯（T/T） time of delivery 交貨日期 trade company 貿易公司
travelers checks 旅行支票 title 抬頭 top quality 上等貨
total loss 全部損失 trade mark 商標 trial order 試銷貨
unfavorable trade balance 逆差 uniform invoice 統一發票 unilateral trade 單邊貿易
warehouse 倉庫 unsaleable 滯結 upset price 底價
useful load 裝載量 wholesaler 批發商 letter of credit 信用狀
revocable letter of credit 取消信用狀 irrevocable letter of credit 不可取消信用狀
sight letter of credit 即期信用狀 usance letter of credit 遠期信用狀
assignable letter credit 可轉讓信用狀 unassignable letter of credit 不可轉讓信用狀
destination 到達口岸 export declaration 出口申請表 quotation form 行情表
6. 求一篇關於金融類的英文參考文獻
提供你的英文關鍵詞，我給你找2010年以後的，還有大概需要多少頁的文章？
7. 求一篇有國際貿易類的英文文獻
你把文獻給我吧 我幫你翻譯
希望採納
8. 求一篇5000字的英文翻譯，關於國際金融與貿易的
, WTO accession on China's financial instry the great challenges
China's huge, high-speed growth of financial markets and lack of financial deepening, long-term policy to protect China's financial sector to foreign financial consortium constitute the immense attraction of trying to a good opportunity for China's accession to the WTO to enter China's financial market has been the focus of their efforts direction. The United States Commerce Secretary William Daley said the Sino-US WTO negotiations fell the most crucial questions, such as banking and insurance areas of financial services.
April 9, 1999, the United States Trade Representative Office unilaterally announced the so-called Chinese date for accession to WTO and the United States reached an open market protocol. These measures, according to the United States in China's accession to the WTO that it would begin to implement. In fact, these so-called Protocol of the United States in fact just the asking price, of which only the agricultural part of complete agreement, other not yet fully reached. The United States Trade Representative Office unilaterally announced the so-called China's accession to the WTO after the financial markets, the openness of the list, from which we can see that the United States and China, asking for specific financial services instry may be subject to the impact of the extent of:
(1) Banking
Between the two countries will continue negotiations on this project. However, China has agreed to join WTO, US-owned banks to foreign customers can immediately provide all the foreign exchange business. One year after WTO accession, the United States to the Chinese bank can provide customers with foreign exchange business, Sino-US joint-venture banks will be allowed to operate wholly foreign-owned banks will be allowed to operate at 5 years, foreign banks in two years will be allowed to conct RMB business at 5 During the year the finance retail business.
(2) the securities instry
At present, the securities, the Chinese will still insist open B-share market, but the A shares should not open. The U.S. side insists that the opening of the stock market. For this requirement, China still insists that financial sector liberalization must be graal and orderly progress, if we do not do so, it will be further subjected to the crisis in Southeast Asian countries to follow.
(3) the insurance instry
U.S. demands China's accession to the WTO, life insurance companies in the foreign shareholding ratio can be up to 50%, add a year later, increased to 51%. Non-life insurance companies and reinsurance companies will be allowed at a joint venture insurance companies hold 51 percent stake, and at two years to set up wholly-owned branch offices.
With China's accession to the WTO will become the truth, China is striving to provide open financial markets to prepare:
(1) Chinese department director has been fixed for the opening of RMB business timetable. Open RMB business faster than most people probably would exceed expectations, in the "foreseeable future" is very likely at all large and medium-sized city open RMB business.
(2) add at WTO, China will be the first to open RMB business in life insurance and property & casualty insurance market. As capital markets belong to the securities instry, opening up the speed will be relatively slow. March 20, the China Insurance Regulatory Commission Ma Yongwei, chairman, said the opening up of China's insurance market is a foregone conclusion in the near future, there will be a number of foreign insurance companies enter the Chinese market.
(3) foreign banks will be one year after China's accession to the WTO, China allowed to provide foreign exchange business customers, and two years later for the enterprise business to provide renminbi business activity, and after five years for Chinese indivials to provide financial services. People's Bank of China will be lifted this year, foreign banks operating branches geographical restrictions, from the current Shanghai, Beijing, Tianjin, Shenzhen and other 23 city extended to all central cities, while the United States formally approved the Shenzhen branch of Citibank, Bank of Tokyo JAPAN Shenzhen sub - Bank to conct RMB business.
(4) of the securities market, foreign capital eager to enter, but the domestic securities market is not mature enough, and the RMB is not freely convertible, direct foreign investment and opening up is unlikely, in recent years, the China Securities Regulatory Commission once the proposal to examine the formation of Sino-foreign joint investment fund the possibility of us to consider the form of foreign investment funds to enter and take the establishment of Sino-foreign cooperative fund the possibility of greatly.
From the above analysis we can already feel that China's accession to the WTO, China's financial instry by the face of international financial integration of the great challenges:
(1) China's financial instry in the long-term barriers to retaining a high degree of policy evaluation, the WT O to add a high degree of market competition after the situation has required a process of adaptation. Chinese bankers are much, for opening up banking reacted strongly consider in the next five years to completely open up the banking instry, time is very urgent. According to the World Bank has long been known as one pairs of Chinese banking instry experts Radi said that the need for around ten years, China's banking sector in order to prepare, in the face of foreign competition in the instry, and not in danger. First of all, the Chinese banking system has yet to be market-oriented reforms to further deepen, at present, four major Chinese state-owned commercial banks are all the Ministry of Finance, the national bank assets accounted for more than 90% of Shenzhen Development Bank are so far the only listed bank. Secondly, non-performing loans of domestic banks within five years, it is difficult to remove. National plans to discount the portion of the debt or sell securities, but this process may be will need to spend a few years or even longer. Reconstruction of the fragile Chinese banking system is that the Chinese Government to allow foreign financial institutions to gain full access to their markets, while domestic financial crisis will not lead to an important prerequisite.
(2) the financial services sector in our country's instry has been opening sequence in a relatively backward part of the opening of international financial competition environment has a process of adaptation. China's financial instry must be limited to opening up the market to prevent the Asian financial turmoil the price of a repeat in China.
(3) China's financial sector, especially state-owned commercial banks in the past the process of non-market operators have accumulated a lot of non-performing loans, which makes U.S. financial sector competition in the market relatively heavy historical burden.
Second, actively respond to
(1) Expand the financial inspection of assets and liabilities of financial institutions to find out the Chinese Government to further guard against financial risks, as well as opening up financial markets to meet the challenges faced, had started a period of 5 months of a general inspection of national financial work out a comprehensive financial institution's assets and the debt situation. Work focused on financial institutions to check the financial position and its non-performing assets in order to regulators of financial institutions nationwide to find out the true state of debt. This will not only help regulators assess the financial risks effectively, and to take appropriate response measures, the graal elimination of financial institutions, large non-performing assets.
(2) in an open domestic market before the director of China's financial department to deal with banks to restructure or to inject more funds into the bank to improve the operation and management principles and the rule of law and set up appropriate regulatory framework. Too fast, opening up the financial instry risk is probably much higher than the strength of foreign investment China's domestic financial system, we should fully absorb the lessons of the Asian crisis: liberalization in the financial instry before, we must strictly regulate the domestic financial system, commercial banks are required to have proper access to capital injection and operation and management.
(3) change their concepts, to face up to the international financial integration of great challenge. International financial integration is one of the world inevitable trend of economic development, we are opening up the financial instry overall strategy is unchanged, just add WTO so that the subject had placed earlier in front of us. At the previous monopoly of the soil protection grew up China's financial instry should face up to the international financial integration of the enormous challenges, we must seriously examine their own point whether there is really strong enough to contend with transnational corporations, the core of our competitiveness where揚長up short, a positive response.
一、加入WTO對中國金融業的巨大挑戰
中國龐大的、高速增長的金融市場和金融深化不足、長期為政策 保護的中國金融業，對外國金融財團構成了巨大的吸引力，試圖通過 中國加入WTO的良機進入中國金融市場一直是它們重點努力的方向。 美國商務部長戴利稱，中美入世談判最關鍵的問題落在銀行和保險等 金融服務領域中。
1999年4月9日，美國貿易代表處單方面公布了所謂中國迄今為加 入WTO與美國達成的市場開放協議。這些措施據美國稱將在中國加入 WTO時開始實施。其實這些所謂的協議實際上只是美國的要價，其中 只有農業部分完全達成協議，其他仍未完全達成。美國貿易代表處單 方面公布了所謂中國加入WTO後金融市場開放程度一覽表，我們從中 可以看到美國具體的要價和中國金融業可能會受到的沖擊程度：
(1)銀行業
兩國仍繼續此項目的談判。但中國已經同意，加入WTO後，美資 銀行可立即向外國客戶提供所有外匯業務。加入WTO一年後，美國的 銀行可向中國客戶提供外匯業務，中美合資的銀行將立即獲准經營， 外國獨資銀行將在5年內獲准經營，外資銀行在二年內將獲准經營人 民幣業務，在5年內經營金融零售業務。
(2)證券業
目前就證券而言，中國堅持仍然會開放B股市場，但是A股不能開 放。美方則堅持提出開放整個證券市場。對於這個要求，中國仍然堅 持金融部門的開放必須循序漸進，如果不這樣作，就將步遭受危機的 東南亞國家後塵。
(3)保險業
美方要求中國加入WTO後，人壽保險公司中外資持股比例可高達 50％，加入一年後，提高至51％。非人壽保險公司和再保險公司將獲 准在合資保險公司中持有51％的股份，並可在二年內成立全資的分支 機構。
隨著中國加入世貿組織將成事實，中國也正為開放金融市場做好 准備：
(1)中國主管部門已訂出開放人民幣業務的時間表。人民幣業務 開放速度之快可能會超出多數人的預期，在「可見的未來」極有可能 在所有大中城市開放人民幣業務。
(2)在加入WTO後，中國將首先開放人民幣業務壽險及產險市場。 至於屬於資本市場的證券業，開放的速度則會相對較慢。3月20日， 中國保險監督管理委員會主席馬永偉表示，中國保險市場的開放大局 已定，在不久的將來，會有多家外國保險公司進入中國市場。
(3)外資銀行將在中國加入WTO一年後，獲准為中國客戶提供外匯 業務，兩年後可為企業商務活動提供人民幣業務，而五年後可為中國 個人提供金融服務。中國人民銀行今年將取消外資銀行營業性分支機 構地域限制，從現在的上海、北京、天津、深圳等23個城市擴大到所 有中心城市，同時正式批准美國花旗銀行深圳分行、日本東京銀行深 圳分行經營人民幣業務。
(4)證券市場方面，外資渴望進入，但國內證券市場並不成熟， 而且人民幣尚不能自由兌換，直接開放外資進入的可能性不大，近年 來中國證監會曾經提出研究組建中外合作投資基金的可能性，我們認 為以基金的形式吸收外資進入，採取組建中外合作基金形式的可能性 極大。
我們從上述分析中已經可以感受到中國加入WTO後，中國金融業 所面對國際金融一體化的巨大挑戰：
(1)中國金融業長期處於高度的政策壁壘護估之下，對於加入WT O後高度的市場競爭形勢需要有個適應過程。 中國許多銀行業人士，對於對外開放銀行業務反應強烈，認為在 五年內徹底開放銀行業，時間是十分急迫的。據世界銀行一位對中國 銀行業素有研究的專家拉迪指出，大約需要十年，中國銀行業才能作 好准備，面對國外同業的競爭，而不致於陷入險境。首先，中國銀行 業體制的市場化改革仍有待進一步深化，目前，中國四大國有商業銀 行屬財政部所有，佔全國銀行資產的90％以上，深圳發展銀行是至今 唯一上市的銀行。其次，國內銀行不良貸款在五年內難以清除。國家 計劃將這部分債務以折價或證券化的方式出售，但此過程也許將需花 上數年甚至更長。重建中國脆弱的銀行系統，是中國政府允許外國金 融機構完全進入本國市場，而不致引發國內金融危機的重要先決條件 。
(2)金融業在我國的行業對外開放序列中一直處於較後的部分， 對開放後的國際金融競爭環境也有個適應過程。中國金融業必須有限 制地向外開放市場，以防止亞洲金融風暴的代價在中國重演。
(3)中國金融業特別是國有商業銀行在過去的非市場經營過程中 累積了不少不良貸款，這使我們的金融業在市場競爭中歷史包袱比較 重。
二、積極應對
(1)展開金融大檢查，摸清金融機構資產負債 中國政府為進一步防範金融風險，以及迎接金融市場開放所面臨 的挑戰，已開始展開為期5個月的全國金融大檢查工作，全面摸清金 融機構的資產和債務狀況。工作重點在於檢查金融機構的財務狀況及 其不良資產，以便監管機構能摸清全國金融機構債務的真實狀況。此 舉不僅有助於監管部門能有效評估金融風險，並可採取適當的應對措 施，逐步消除金融機構龐大的不良資產。
(2)在開放國內市場以前，中國金融主管部門應對銀行進行重組 或增加註資，改進銀行經營管理方針，並建立適當的法治和規范框架 。過快開放金融業的風險在於外資實力可能大大超過中國國內金融體 系，我們應該充分吸取亞洲危機的教訓：在金融業自由化前，必須對 國內金融系統嚴格規范，商業銀行必須妥善獲得資本金注入及經營管 理。
(3)轉變觀念，正視國際金融一體化的巨大挑戰。國際金融一體 化是世界經濟發展的必然趨勢，我們金融業的對外開放的總方略是不 變的，加入WTO只是使這一課題提早擺到了我們的面前。以往在壟斷 保護的土壤中成長起來的中國金融業應該正視國際金融一體化的巨大 挑戰，要認真審視自己究竟有哪一點足以與真正強大的跨國公司抗衡， 我們的核心競爭力在何處，揚長補短，積極應對。
9. 誰有國際貿易 國際金融方面的專業英語資料
首先，建議你下載高盛財經詞典。
其次，你可以把郵箱給我，我發一些internantional trade&internantional finance的全英文課件給你。裡面有名詞解釋。
最後，我可以給你一些internantional finance的雙語名詞解釋給你。
Professonal terms
1、balance of payments; 貿易支付差額a system of recording all of a country's economic transactions with the rest of the world over a period of one year
2、the current account; the current account is one of the two primary components of the balance of payments：貨物、服務、收入和經常轉移。
3、the capital account; It is the sum of the balance of trade (exports minus imports of goods and services)
資本與金融賬戶（Capital and Financial Account）與經常賬戶相對，國際收支上本國與外國之間資本流動的記錄，反映本國資產和負債狀況的變動，包含貸款和投資相關的資本流動。
4、the double-entry bookkeeping; The basic principle of double entry bookkeeping is that every transaction has a twofold effect.復式記賬法的基本原理是每筆交易都有借貸雙方。This system is called double-entry because each transaction is recorded in at least two accounts. Each transaction results in at least one account being debited and at least one account being credited, with the total debits of the transaction equal to the total credits
5、merchandise trade balance; 商品貿易的平衡The Merchandise Trade Balance is a measure of "visible" trade
6、 current account balance; 經常賬目平衡The current account balance is the difference between a country's savings and its investment指對實際資源的流動行為進行記錄的帳戶，包括：貨物、服務、收入和經常轉移。
7、The overall balance; 綜合平衡 An overall measurement of a country's private financial and economic transactions with the rest of the world
8、the official reserve asset balance; 官方儲備。官方儲備是指一個國家由官方所持有的國際儲備資產，包括黃金、外匯和特別提款權。一個國家在一定時期的國際收支不可能完全平衡，總會發生差額。如果不平衡，就要通過動用官方儲備，來彌補或軋平這個時期國際收支的差額，實現該時期國際收支的平衡。
9、the Errors and Omissions; 錯誤與遺漏(0) Error & Omission insurance protects a business professional whose clients could claim damages as a result of business professional's faulty performance.
10.residents;
11.the international investment position; 國際投資頭寸 外匯頭寸——是指外匯銀行所持有的各種外幣帳戶余額狀況，即外匯銀行
的外匯買賣的餘缺狀況。A country's international investment position (IIP) is a financial statement setting out the value and composition of that country's external financial assets and liabilities.
12.the IMF; The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organization that oversees the global financial system by following the macroeconomic policies of its member countries, in particular those with an impact on exchange rates and the balance of payments. It also offers financial and technical assistance to its members, making it an international lender of last resort. Its headquarters are located in Washington, D.C., USA. 國際貨幣基金組織（或國際貨幣基金，英文簡稱：IMF）是國際金融組織，職責是通過監察貨幣匯率和各國貿易情況、以及提供技術和資金協助，確保全球金融制度運作正常。1945年12月27日正式成立。總部設在華盛頓
13.the reserve position in the IMF; 國際貨幣基金有儲備金，供國家借用，以在短時間內穩定貨幣；做法類似在往來戶口中透支。所借款項必須於5年內清還。
14.SDRs 特別提款權（special drawing right,SDR)是國際貨幣基金組織創設的一種儲備資產和記帳單位，亦稱「紙黃金(Paper Gold)」。它是基金組織分配給會員國的一種使用資金的權利。會員國在發生國際收支逆差時，可用它向基金組織指定的其他會員國換取外匯，以償付國際收支逆差或償還基金組織的貸款，還可與黃金、自由兌換貨幣一樣充當國際儲備。但由於其只是一種記帳單位，不是真正貨幣，使用時必須先換成其他貨幣，不能直接用於貿易或非貿易的支付。因為它是國際貨幣基金組織原有的普通提款權以外的一種補充，所以稱為特別提款權（SDR）。
15.foreign exchange; 外匯 foreign exchange (FX市場)通常指以外國貨幣表示的可用於國際結算的各種支付手段。包括:外國貨幣、外幣存款、外幣有價證券(政府公債、國庫券、公司債券、股票等)、外幣支付憑證(票據、銀行存款憑證、郵政儲蓄憑證等)。
16.exchange rate; 匯率 (exchange rate) 【概念】 匯率亦稱「外匯行市或匯價」。一國貨幣兌換另一國貨幣的比率,是以一種貨幣表示另一種貨幣的價格。
17.spot exchange rate; 即期匯率
現匯匯率：分買入匯率和賣出匯率。買入匯率（ByyingRate)又稱外匯買入價，是指銀行向客戶買入外匯時所使用的匯率。一般地，外幣摺合本幣數較少的那個匯率是買入匯率，它表示買入一定數額的外匯需要付出多少本國貨幣。賣出匯率（sellingRate）又稱外匯賣出價，是指銀行向客戶賣出外匯時所使用的匯率。一般地，外幣摺合本幣數較多的那個匯率是賣出匯率，它表示銀行賣出一定數額的外匯需要收回多少本國貨幣。
18.forward exchange; 遠期匯率
外匯期貨是交易雙方約定在未來某一時間，依據現在約定的比例，以一種貨幣交換另一種貨幣的標准化合約的交易。是指以匯率為標的物的期貨合約，用來迴避匯率風險。
19.intangible market; 無形資產，是指企業擁有或者控制的沒有實物形態的可. 辨認非貨幣性資產。
20.a vehicle currency;
21.SWIFT (Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunications); SWIFT全世界銀行間金融電信學會是一個協作組織，它運營著世界級的金融電文網路，銀行和其他金融機構通過它與同業交換電文（message），從而完成金融交易。除此之外，SWIFT還向金融機構銷售軟體和服務，其中大部分的用戶都在使用SWIFT網路。到2006年4月為止，SWIFT的服務已經遍及205個國家，接入的金融機構超過7800家。
22.CHIPS (Clearing House International Payments System);
23. floating exchange rate; 1. 概念:一國貨幣當局不再規定本國貨幣與外國貨幣比價和匯率波動的幅度，貨幣當局也不承擔維持匯率波動界限的義務，而聽任匯率隨外匯市場供求變化自由波動的一種匯率制度。
24.the equilibrium exchange rate;
25.fixed exchange rate; 這種制度規定本國貨幣與其他國家貨幣之間維持一個固定比率，匯率波動只能限制在一定范圍內，由官方干預來保證匯率的穩定。
26.the band of exchange rate;
27.par value; Par value, in finance and accounting, means stated value or face value.
28.the appreciation; 升值
29.the depreciation; 貶值
30.the revaluation;貨幣升值
31.the devaluation; 貨幣貶值 貨幣貶值（又稱通貨貶值），是貨幣升值的對稱，是指單位貨幣所含有的價值或所代表的價值的下降，即單位貨幣價格下降貨幣貶值可以從不同角度來理解。
32.arbitrage; 套利( spreads):
指同時買進和賣出兩張不同種類的期貨合約。交易者買進自認為是"便宜的"合約，同時賣出那些"高價的"合約，從兩合約價格間的變動關系中獲利。在進行套利時，交易者注意的是合約之間的相互價格關系，而不是絕對價格水平。套利Arbitrage：試圖利用不同市場或不同形式的同類或相似金融產品的價格差異牟利。最理想的狀態是無風險套利。In economics and finance, arbitrage is the practice of taking advantage of a price differential between two or more markets:
33.biangular arbitrage;兩角套利 假設在不考慮交易費用的情況下，紐約市場上美元對歐元的匯率是0，61， 而在倫敦市場上美元對歐元是0.65， 這樣就出現了兩角套利的機會， 在紐約市場買入歐元然後在倫敦市場上賣出， 在這里能產生4%的利潤在每賣出去的歐元。 但是這種個行動會導致紐約市場上歐元的需求量增加導致美元對歐元的匯率升高， 例如到0.63；另一方面， 在倫敦市場上歐元的供給增加導致匯率下降，例如0.63. 這些套利的行動最終使得美元對歐元的匯率相符合。
34.triangular arbitrage; 三角套利
35.basic rates; 基本匯率（也叫直盤或基礎匯率）：一般指一國貨幣與美元的比價。
36.cross rates交叉匯率（也叫交叉盤）：是指兩種非美元貨幣之間的比價，交叉匯率可從基本匯率套算而來。
套匯率 - 任何兩種貨幣間的匯率，這兩種貨幣在給出這對貨幣對報價的國家被認為是非標準的。比如，在美國，英鎊/日元的報價可能被看作一種套匯率，然而在英國或日本它可能是交易中主要的貨幣對之一。
37.exchange rate risk; 匯率風險:又稱外匯風險,指經濟主體持有或運用外匯的經濟活動中,因匯率變動而蒙受損失的可能性。
38.international financial investment; 國際投資（International Investment）,又稱對外投資（Foreign Investment）或海外投資（Overseas Investment），是指跨國公司等國際投資主體，將其擁有的貨幣資本或產業資本，通過跨國界流動和營運，以實現價值增值的經濟行為。
39.international investment with cover;
40.international investment without cover;
41.hedging; 對沖交易即同時進行兩筆行情相關、方向相反、數量相當、盈虧相抵的交易。
42. hedgers;
43.speculating;投機投機(Speculation)指根據對市場的判斷，把握機會，利用市場出現的價差進行買賣從中獲得利潤的交易行為。
44. speculators;投機者
45. the forward premium; 升水率
46.the forward discount; 貼稅率
貼水值,貼水率,.和升水值,升水率如果是指外匯方面：
遠期差價有兩種，升水和貼水，在直接標價法（1外幣＝n人民幣）下外匯貼水意味著外匯在遠期貶值，人民幣升值，貼水值就是外匯貶值多少基點（一般將0.0001，日元為0.01稱為1基點），例如現在即期匯率$1=￥7.7613，假設1個月後為$1=￥7.7583，那麼美元貼水值為30點，貼水率為0.003/7.7613。
升水則是與之相反的概念
47.covered interest arbitrage; 抵補套利(Covered Arbitrage)是指把資金調往高利率貨幣國家或地區的同時，在外匯市場上賣出遠期高利率貨幣，即在進行套利的同時做掉期交易，以避免匯率風險。實際上這就是套期保值，一般的套利保值交易多為抵補套利。
48.uncovered interest arbitrage; 不抵補套利（uncovered interest arbitrage）指把資金從利率低的貨幣轉向利率高的貨幣，從而謀取利率的差額收入。這種交易不必同時進行反方向交易軋平頭寸，但這種交易要承擔高利率貨幣貶值的風險。。
49.covered interest parity; 套補的利率平價。假定iA是A 國貨幣的利率，iB是B國貨幣的利率，p是即期遠期匯率的升跌水平。假定投資者採取持有遠期合約的套補方式交易時，市場最終會使利率與匯率間形成下列關系：p = iA − iB。其經濟含義是：匯率的遠期升貼水平等於兩國貨幣利率之差。在套補利率平價成立時，如果A 國利率高於B國利率，則A 國遠期匯率必將升水，A國貨幣在遠期市場上將貶值。反之亦然。匯率的變動會抵消兩國間的利率差異，從而使金融市場處於平衡狀態。
50. uncovered interest parity非套補的利率平價。假定投資者根據自己對未來匯率變動的預期而計算預期的收益，在承擔一定的匯率風險情況下進行投資活動。假定，Ep表示預期的匯率遠期變動率，則Ep = iA − iB。其經濟含義是：遠期的匯率預期變動率等於兩國貨幣利率之差。在非套補利率平價成立時，如果A國利率高於B國利率，則意味著市場預期A國貨幣在遠期將貶值。
51.PPP; 購買力平價理論 兩國貨幣的匯率主要是由兩國貨幣的購買力決定的。
52.the law of one price; 一價定律可表述為：當貿易開放且交易費用為盡時，同樣酌貨物無論在何地銷售，其價格都相同* 國際金融中的「一價定律」是指：一種商品在各國間的價值是一致的，即是說，通過匯率折算之後的標價是一致的，若在各國間存在價格差異，則會發生商品國際貿易，直到價差被消除，貿易停止，這時達到商品市場的均衡狀態。該定律適用於商品市場，與之相似的適用於資本市場的定律是利息平價理論。
53.absolute PPP;
絕對購買力平價認為：一國貨幣的價值及對它的需求是由單位貨幣在國內所能買到的商品和勞務的量決定的，即由它的購買力決定的
54.relative PPP; 相對購買力平價彌補了絕對購買力平價一些不足的方面。它的主要觀點可以簡單地表述為：兩國貨幣的匯率水平將根據兩國通脹率的差異而進行相應地調整。 它表明兩國間的相對通貨膨脹決定兩種貨幣間的均衡匯率。
55.overshooting; 匯率超調（Sticky-Price Monetary Approach/Overshooting）是由美國經濟學家魯迪格•多恩布希(Rudiger•Dornbusch)於20世紀70年代提出的。又稱為匯率決定的粘性價格貨幣分析法
所謂超調通常是指一個變數對給定擾動做出的短期反應超過了其長期穩定均衡值，並因而被一個相反的調節所跟隨。導致這種現象出現的起因在於商品市場上的價格存在「粘性」或者「滯後」的特點。56.bandwagon effects; 流行影響或羊群效應The bandwagon effect, also known as social proof or "cromo effect" and closely related to opportunism, is the observation that people often do and believe things because many other people do and believe the same things. 「羊群效應」也稱「從眾心理」。是指管理學上一些企業的市場行為的一種常見現象。
經濟學里經常用「羊群效應」來描述經濟個體的從眾跟風心理。羊群是一種很散亂的組織，平時在一起也是盲目地左沖右撞，但一旦有一隻頭羊動起來，其他的羊也會不假思索地一哄而上，全然不顧前面可能有狼或者不遠處有更好的草。因此，「羊群效應」就是比喻人都有一種從眾心理，從眾心理很容易導致盲從，而盲從往往會陷入騙局或遭到失敗。 57.bubbles; 泡沫經濟：虛擬資本過度增長與相關交易持續膨脹日益脫離實物資本的增長和實業部門的成長，金融證券、地產價格飛漲，投機交易極為活躍的經濟現象。泡沫經濟寓於金融投機，造成社會經濟的虛假繁榮，最後必定泡沫破滅，導致社會震盪，甚至經濟崩潰。
58. nominal bilateral exchange rate;名義雙邊匯率
59. nominal effective exchange rate;名義有效匯率
名義匯率和實際匯率
名義匯率就是現實中的貨幣兌換比率，它可能由市場決定，也可能由官方制定。名義匯率是兩種貨幣之間的雙邊匯率，運用名義匯率值的變化說明匯率的變動幅度和趨勢存在一定的局限性。實際匯率是名義匯率用兩國價格水平調整後的匯率，即外國商品與本國商品的相對價格，反映了本國商品的國際競爭力。
60. real bilateral exchange rate; 實際雙邊匯率
61.real effective exchange rate實際有效匯率
Real Effective Exchange Rate （REER）
名義匯率是又稱「市場匯率」。「實際匯率」的對稱。一種貨幣能兌換另一種貨幣的數量的名義匯率，通常是先設定一個特殊的貨幣加美元、特別提款權作為標准，然後確定與此種貨幣的匯率。匯率依美元、特別提款權的幣值變動而變動。名義匯率不能反映兩國貨幣的實際價值，是隨外匯市場上外匯供求變動而變動而變動的外匯買賣價格。
名義有效匯率是對所有雙邊匯率按照貿易金額進行加權平均計算出來的匯率；實際有效匯率是在名義有效匯率的基礎上，對雙邊的通脹水平予以剔除。事實上，在經常賬戶的盈餘或赤字、一國的競爭力的決定方面，真正起作用的是實際有效匯率。
實際匯率最普通的定義是指兩國商品和勞務的相對價格，即是相對於本國的商品和勞務而言，外國商品和勞務以本幣表示的價格。若實際匯率上升，意味著外國商品和勞務的本幣價格相對上漲，本幣在外國的購買力相對下降，本幣實際貶值，外幣實際升值；若實際匯率下降，意味著外國商品和勞務的本幣價格相對下降，本幣在外國的購買力相對上升，本幣實際升值，外幣實際貶值。
人民幣實際匯率的具體計算公式如下：
REER＝（ER×CPI*）/ CPI （1）
其中：ER表示中美雙邊名義匯率，REER的人民幣兌美元雙邊名義匯率（ER），CPI為以**年為基期的中國消費物價指數，根據中國統計年鑒和統計公報中的環比CPI換算所得；CPI*為以**年為基期的美國城市消費物價指數，根據美國勞工部**年的定基CPI換算所得。
62.convertible currency; 貨幣自由兌換（Currency Convertibility） 貨幣自由兌換是指在一個統一的或健全的國際貨幣體系下，一國貨幣與他國貨幣可以通過某種兌換機制自由地交換。63.exchange control; 外匯管制 Foreign exchange control
指一國或經濟體對本幣與外國貨幣在境內的自由兌換施加限制和干預的強制政策，以達到維持本國貨幣幣值穩定和實現國際收支平衡等目的。
64.a clean float; 浮動匯率制度的一種，亦稱清潔浮動。是指一國的貨幣匯率完全由外匯市場的供求關系決定，貨幣當局不採取斜體干預本幣匯率波動的措施。
65.a dirty float; 骯臟互動匯率制/有管理浮動匯率制(dirty float/managed float)
指一種官方不公開匯率目標的匯率制度。中央銀行或貨幣當局通過干預外匯市場以使匯率維持在其不公開的目標水平，而目標水平可能會隨環境的變化而改變。
66. a managed float; 由政府操縱的匯率浮動
67.adjustable peg; 可調整的釘住匯率制（adjustable pegged exchange rates,Adjustable Peg）可調整的釘住匯率制概述
通常，各國既不會採用完全的固定匯率制，也不會完全讓匯率由市場的供求力量來決定，而是有限度地追求匯率的靈活性，就是所謂的可調整的釘住匯率制。
可調整的釘住匯率制（adjustable pegged exchange rates）源於1944的布雷頓森林協定(Bretton Woods system)。在這種體制中，各國的匯率既可以保持穩定又可以具有靈活性。在短期，各國可以使用外匯穩定基金把匯率維持在固定的水平；而在長期，則通過貶值和升值保持收支平衡。
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68.crawling peg; 爬行釘住匯率制(crawling peg) 爬行釘住匯率制概述
爬行釘住匯率制是固定匯率制和浮動匯率制的折中，其含義是一國對貨幣平價進行細微的、經常性的調整，扭轉一國的國際收支失衡，是將匯率釘住某種平價，但根據一組選定的指標頻繁地、小幅度地調整所釘住平價的一種匯率安排。赤字國和盈餘國都會一直調整匯率水平，直到滿意為止。並且平價的變動分許多小步進行，匯率的調整盡可能地接近連續。其調整是按照這些指示變數來進行的：相對於主要貿易夥伴國的本國價格的變化；外匯儲備水平；出口業績；國際收支經常賬戶的狀況。巴西、阿根廷、智利等國家使用該制度。 爬行制的基本思想是：一國可以小幅度地、經常地調整平價，一年可以調整幾次，使平價按市場條件的變化緩慢爬行。
69.reserve currencies; 儲備貨幣儲備貨幣是指中央銀行長期持有的具備國際清償力的貨幣。
70.foreign exchange market intervention; 外匯市場干預
外匯市場干預是指中央銀行(或貨幣當局)為管理本國貨幣的匯率,在外匯市場上進行的外匯買賣.其中包括外匯市場干預的目標選擇、干預的組織、干預的途徑、干預的頻度等
71.sterilized intervention; 外匯沖銷干預
「中和干預」又叫沖銷式干預，它是政府管理匯率的重要政策之一，也稱沖銷政策。它是指中央銀行進行數量相等但方向相反的國外和國內資產交易，以抵消外匯干預對國內貨幣供給的影響。72.non-sterilized intervention; 非沖銷干預
非沖銷式干預就是指中央銀行在干預外匯市場時不採取其他金融政策與之配合,即不改變因外匯干預而造成的貨幣供應量的變化.
73. gold standard; 金本位制就是以黃金為本位幣的貨幣制度。在金本位制下，或每單位的貨幣價值等同於若乾重量的黃金（即貨幣含金量）；當不同國家使用金本位時，國家之間的匯率由它們各自貨幣的含金量之比--金平價（Gold Parity）來決定。
74. the Bretton Woods system; 布雷頓森林貨幣體系是指戰後以美元為中心的國際貨幣體系。75.「two-tier」 gold price system. 雙重金價制
雙重金價制. two-tier gold system. 為保護國際貨幣儲備不受金價高漲壓力的影響而作出的安排。