1. 求国际贸易类 英文文献及翻译一篇,5000字左右
一、电子商务对国际贸易的影响1
（一） 电子商务的内涵与特点1
（二） 电子商务对国际贸易的影响6
二、中国发展电子商务的现状及存在的问题11
（一）我国电子商务的发展现状11
（二） 存在的问题12
（三） 中国对外贸易的重新定位15
三、中国利用电子商务促进对外贸易的策略17
（一） 电子商务在出口贸易中的效益体现17
（二）开拓新的国际市场要求发展无纸贸易17
（三）迎接挑战的对策19
结论23
致谢24
参考文献25
附录一26
附录二31
摘 要
在向信息经济世界的转变过程中，传统商务由于存在太多的弊端，已经不能胜任现时条件下的贸易环境。电子商务作为因特网技术发展日益成熟的直接结果，是未来商业发展的新方向。
电子商务（Electronic Commence）是一种以电子数据交换EDI和Internet网上交易为主要内容的全新商务模式。其体现的开放性、全球性、地域性、低成本和高效率等内在特征，在符合商业经济内在要求的同时，还使其超越了作为一种新的贸易形式所具有的价值。它不仅改变了企业本身的生产、经营、管理，而且对传统的贸易方式带来冲击。其最明显的标志就是增加了贸易机会、降低贸易成本、提高贸易效益。在带动经济结构变革的同时，对整个现代经济生活产生了巨大而且深远的影响。
对此，中国作为经济正在发展的贸易大国，在电子商务的挑战之下，要同时面对其带来的压力和机遇，进行自我调整，以求跟上其快速变革的步伐。要大力发展电子商务，在今后的贸易竞争中占据主动，应拿出自己的举措，以赢得和发达国家站在同一起跑线上的机会。
关键词 电子商务 数据交换 因特网 国际贸易
Abstract
In the shifting to information economy, traditional commerce is out of the steps of time because of its lot shortcomings. As the direct result from the development of cyber internet technology, EC (Electronic Commerce) is the new direction of future business.
EC includes EDI (Electronic Data Interchange) and business on web. It is a definitely new business model. Its inner nature such as global, regional, low cost and high efficiency make it more valuable than its virtual value as a new business model. At the same time, it is also accord with demands from business. EC not only changes procing, management, but impact on traditional commerce model. The most obvious symbol is increase business opportunities, decrease of trading cost, and getting more business profits. It leads profound affection to the whole economic life when it changes economic structure.
China wants to be a great developing trading nation. It is necessary to act activity. We need making strategy to face EC, to face the impact, the pressure and chances in order to control our foreign business policies.
Justify by us in order to follow EC steps in developing. That is the right way for us to challenge with other developed countries.
Key word Electronic Commerce Electronic Data Interchange Internet
International trading
（三）中国对外贸易的重新定位
中国的贸易必须在世界贸易从传统贸易向国际网络贸易转化中重新为自己定位，就是使中国贸易从传统贸易转化为网络贸易。为此，我们要积极推进中国贸易从传统贸易向国际网络贸易的革命性的转化，这一推进要通过市场与政府有效结合的方式来进行。值得指出的是，中国已经初步地“尝到了网络贸易的甜头”，1998年1~5月份，中国的出口本来应该受亚洲货币金融危机的影响而有较大幅度的下降，但是，1998年1~5月份中国的外贸进出口却保持着增长，据海关统计，1998年1~5月份，中国外贸进出口总值达1 236.9亿美元，比去年同期增长5.4%，其中出口711.1亿美元，增长8.6%，进口525.8%亿美元，增长1.5%，其中一个重要的决定因素就是，中国在1998年的春季广交会上，利用互联网向全球2 000多家外商发出了电子邮件，这使得在东南亚金融危机后的这次广交会的出席人数达6.5万人，为历年广交会人数最多的一次。在这次广交会上，中国同东南亚和韩国达成的交易额下降了60%，而同欧洲、美洲、中东、非洲的交易额则增长20%~30%。占中国出口四成的本次广交会出口成交额比上年增长10%以上。据海关统计，1998年1~4月份，中国对亚洲出口增长4.8%，对亚洲出口的比重比去年同期下降了4.6%，而对欧洲、美国、非洲、南美的出口却分别增长了29.6%、22.7%、33.9%、40.1%，它们占中国外贸出口的比重也有一定幅度的增加，很显然，中国外贸的这一变化是与对国际互联网电子邮件利用密切相关的。中国外经贸部宣布“中国商品市场”已于1998年7月8日正式进入因特网，它将成为目前因特网上最大的中国商品数据库，向外商展示中国商品信息，这为许多企业进入网络，提供了新机会。这一“中国商品市场”就利用网络发布信息这一形式而言，与中国已有的在网络上建立站点发布信息的企业一样。很明显，对于它们都有或将有从发布信息，深化到销售产品和以网络为基础的企业业务往来、企业间培训、客户培训、售后服务等商务活动的必要。这也是应该挖掘网络收益的一个取向，既要利用网络来捕捉更多的贸易机会，扩大市场的范围，又要通过网络来使得比较优势和竞争优势升级。另外，一定要注意网络安全问题。还有，也是至关重要的，中国应对网络贸易立法，且对已存在的对外贸易法进行修改。有理由相信，随着中国外贸逐步地从传统贸易转化为网络贸易，中国网络贸易的发展必然使中国的贸易呈现出一种新的局面.
英文是:
With economic development and the progress of the times, people of the original concept of marriage constantly being challenged, while the concept of legal system is further strengthened. Due to various reasons, divorce cases each year are on the rise, the husband and wife in a divorce case and deal with common property that has become increasingly difficult, reflected by the status of more and more important, it has a bearing on social stability and unity, and economic construction can proceed smoothly. Debt Settlement of joint processing and housing is dealt with divorce, division of property compared the two main issues, the 2001 Marriage Law, promulgated and implemented the new sound of the old Marriage Law of the many deficiencies, but its institutional division of property in a divorce there are still some shortcomings. Therefore, the perfect family property system and properly handle the divorce, division of matrimonial property has strong practical significance.
2. 求关于国际贸易英文文献（急急急）在线等候
浅探当代国际贸易新理论对我国对外贸易战略的启示
在我国对外贸易规模不断扩大的今天，要想提高我国的国际竞争力，必须重视国际上20世纪70年代以后兴起的国际贸易新理论，实施创新的对外贸易战略，打造具有国际竞争优势的产业。本文通过研究当代国际贸易理论的新发展对我国外贸发展的启示，分析探讨了我国应该如何制定相应的政策，采取相应的对策来促进我国对外贸易的发展。
一、当代国际贸易理论的新进展
二战后随着科学技术的进步和生产力的不断发展，国际贸易的规模、商品结构和地区分布也发生了很大变化。经济学家在国际贸易理论研究中不断探索，20世纪70年代以来先后出现的影响较大的国际贸易新理论有以下几种：
1、战略性贸易政策理论
战略性贸易政策理论产生于2O世纪7O年代以来“新贸易保护主义”盛行的背景之下，由美国经济学家保罗·克鲁格曼等人于2O世纪8O年代中期提出，主要内容包括两方面：（1）以内部规模经济为基础的利润转移理论；（2）以外部规模经济为基础的外部经济理论。
2、产业内贸易理论
20世纪70年代格鲁贝尔和劳埃德等人开创了产业内贸易理论研究，到20世纪80年代初美国经济学家克鲁格曼进一步推动了这一理论的发展。该理论不同于侧重论述产业间贸易的传统贸易理论，代写毕业论文它侧重研究贸易双方在同一产业中既出口又进口同类异质产品的产业内贸易。在不完全竞争产业中，规模经济和产品差异是产业内贸易形成的决定因素。
3、产品生命周期理论
产品生命周期理论由美国销售学家弗农于1966年首先提出，经威尔斯、赫希哲等人不断完善。产品生命周期理论认为，由于技术创新和扩散，制成品和生物一样具有生命周期。产品生命周期包括五个阶段：(1)新生期；(2)成长期；(3)成熟期；(4)销售下降期；(5)让与期。
4、国家竞争优势理论
20世纪80年代以来，美国哈佛大学的迈克尔·波特提出并完善了国家竞争优势理论。国家竞争优势理论与传统比较优势理论和要素禀赋理论不同之处在于，该理论认为一个国家之所以能够兴旺发达，其根本原因在于该国的国际竞争优势，这种竞争优势源于一个相互增强的系统，在这个系统中，有四个关键因素影响一国在国际市场上建立和保持竞争优势的能力，这四个因素是：(1)生产要素；(2)国内需求；(3)相关产业；(4)企业战略、组织和竞争度。
二、当代国际贸易新理论对我国对外贸易战略的启示
1、积极转化国家的竞争优势
比较优势是由一国资源禀赋和交易条件所决定的静态优势，是获取竞争优势的条件。竞争优势则是一种将潜在优势转化为现实优势的综合能力的作用结果。比较优势作为一种潜在优势，只有最终转化为竞争优势，才能形成真正的出口竞争力。根据生产要素禀赋，我国一直以来具有劳动力资源的比较优势，但是，在当今国际市场上劳动密集型产品的比较优势并不一定具有国际竞争优势。要确立把比较优势转换为竞争优势的外贸战略。
2、高新技术产业发展至关重要
由国际产品生命周期理论可以推知：创新国是国际贸易利益的最大获益者。这是因为：在产品的新生期和成长期，创新国以其技术优势垄断了国内和国际市场，因而可以获得大量超额垄断利润；在产品的成熟期进入所谓的“大规模生产”阶段，创新国可以获得巨额规模经济效益；在产品的销售下降期和让与期，创新国在国外投资建厂，输出其知识产权和品牌，延长其产品的生命周期，在国际市场上继续赚取利润。
3、发展高层次产业内贸易是提高对外贸易竞争力的重要手段
随着国际经济贸易的发展，产业内贸易在给各贸易国带来贸易利益的同时，
Probe into New Theory of International Trade Implications of China Foreign Trade Strategy
Growing scale of foreign trade in China today, in order to enhance China's international competitiveness, must pay attention to the international community 70 years after the 20th century Xingqi new theory of international trade, the implementation of the Duiwaimaoyi innovation strategy, create an international competitive advantage in the instry. This paper studies the contemporary new development of international trade theory enlightenment for the development of China's foreign trade, analysis of how China should formulate corresponding policies and take corresponding measures to promote the development of China's foreign trade.
First, the contemporary theory of international trade, new progress
After World War II with the scientific and technological progress and proctivity of the continuous development of international trade size, structure and regional distribution of goods, great changes have taken place. Theory of international trade economist and continuously explore the 20th century, has emerged since the 70's influential new theory of international trade, the following:
1, Strategic Trade Policy
Strategic trade policy arise from 7O 2O century since the "new trade protectionism," the prevalence of background, the U.S. economist Paul Krugman, who in the mid 8O 2O century, proposed, mainly including two aspects : (1) internal economies of scale-based theory of profit transfer; (2) based on external economies of scale external economic theory.
2, intra-instry trade theory
20th century 70s Grubel and Lloyd, who created the instry trade theory, to the early 20th century U.S. economist Paul Krugman of 80 to further promote the development of this theory. The theory is different from the focus on inter-instry trade paper the traditional trade theory, on behalf of my thesis research is focused on trade, both sides in the same instry, the export of procts they import the same heterogeneous instry trade. Not perfectly competitive instries, economies of scale and proct differentiation is the formation of intra-instry trade determinants.
3, the proct life cycle theory
Proct life cycle theory Sales Vernon by the United States first proposed in 1966 by Prince, He Xizhe and others improved. Proct life cycle theory, as technological innovation and diffusion, and biological procts, like life-cycle. Proct life cycle consists of five stages: (1) Neonatal; (2) growth stage; (3) maturity; (4) decline of sales; (5) for and on.
4, Competitive Advantage of Nations
Since the 80s of the 20th century, Harvard's Michael Porter and improve the Competitive Advantage of Nations. Competitive Advantage of Nations and the traditional theory of comparative advantage and factor endowments theory of difference is, the theory that a country has been able to flourish, and the fundamental reason is the country's international competitive advantage, this competitive advantage derived from a mutually reinforcing system, in this system, there are four key factors that affect a country in the international market, establish and maintain a competitive edge in the ability of these four factors are: (1) factors of proction; (2) domestic demand; (3) related instries ; (4) business strategy, organizational and competitive degree.
Second, the contemporary theory of international trade on China's foreign trade strategy for new inspiration
1, the positive transformation of the national competitive advantage
Comparative advantage in natural resources by a country and trading conditions determine the static strengths are the conditions for competitive advantage. Competitive advantage is a way to advantage the potential into real ability to effect the comprehensive results. Comparative advantage as a potential advantage, only the final into a competitive advantage, to form a real export competitiveness. According to the proction factor endowment, along with China's comparative advantage in labor resources, but in today's international market, the comparative advantage of labor-intensive procts do not necessarily have an international competitive advantage. To establish the comparative advantages into competitive advantages in foreign trade strategy.
2, high-tech instries vital to the development
By the international proct life cycle theory can be deced: Innovation is the international trade interests of the country's biggest winners. This is because: the proct of Neonatal and growth, innovation and technical superiority of its state monopoly of domestic and international markets, and thus get a lot of excess monopoly profits; in proct maturity into the so-called "mass proction" stage, innovation States can get huge economies of scale; in proct sales were down period and give and of innovation invest and build factories in foreign countries, the output of its intellectual property and brand to extend its proct life Zhou Qi, in the international market continue to make a profit.
3, the development of high-level intra-instry trade is to improve the competitiveness of an important means of foreign trade
With the international economic and trade development, intra-instry trade in all trading nations to bring trade interests,
翻译为：
3. 满分求一篇对外贸易类的英文文献
Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits
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The Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits (UCP) is a set of rules on the issuance and use of letters of credit. The UCP is utilised by bankers and commercial parties in more than 175 countries in trade finance. Some 11-15% of international trade utilises letters of credit, totalling over a trillion dollars (US) each year.
Historically, the commercial parties, particularly banks, have developed the techniques and methods for handling letters of credit in international trade finance. This practice has been standardized by the ICC (International Chamber of Commerce) by publishing the UCP in 1933 and subsequently updating it throughout the years. The ICC has developed and moulded the UCP by regular revisions, the current version being the UCP600. The result is the most successful international attempt at unifying rules ever, as the UCP has substantially universal effect. The latest revision was approved by the Banking Commission of the ICC at its meeting in Paris on 25 October 2006. This latest version, called the UCP600, formally commenced on 1 July 2007.
ICC and the UCP
A significant function of the ICC is the preparation and promotion of its uniform rules of practice. The ICC’s aim is to provide a codification of international practice occasionally selecting the best practice after ample debate and consideration. The ICC rules of practice are designed by bankers and merchants and not by legislatures with political and local considerations. The rules accordingly demonstrate the needs, customs and practices of business. Because the rules are incorporated voluntarily into contracts, the rules are flexible while providing a stable base for international review, including judicial scrutiny. International revision is thus facilitated permitting the incorporation of the changing practices of the commercial parties. ICC, which was established in 1919, had as its primary objective facilitating the flow of international trade at a time when nationalism and protectionism threatened the easing of world trade. It was in that spirit that the UCP were first introced – to alleviate the confusion caused by indivial countries’ promoting their own national rules on letter of credit practice. The aim was to create a set of contractual rules that would establish uniformity in practice, so that there would be less need to cope with often conflicting national regulations. The universal acceptance of the UCP by practitioners in countries with widely divergent economic and judicial systems is a testament to the rules’ success.
UCP600
The latest revision of UCP is the sixth revision of the rules since they were first promulgated in 1933. It is the fruit of more than three years of work by the ICC's Commission on Banking Technique and Practice.
The UCP remain the most successful set of private rules for trade ever developed. A range of indivials and groups contributed to the current revision including: the UCP Drafting Group, which waded through more than 5000 indivial comments before arriving at this final text; the UCP Consulting Group, consisting of members from more than 25 countries, which served as the advisory body; the more than 400 members of the ICC Commission on Banking Technique and Practice who made pertinent suggestions for changes in the text; and 130 ICC National Committees worldwide which took an active role in consolidating comments from their members.
During the revision process, notice was taken of the considerable work that had been completed in creating the International Standard Banking Practice for the Examination of Documents under Documentary Credits (ISBP), ICC Publication 645. This publication has evolved into a necessary companion to the UCP for determining compliance of documents with the terms of letters of credit. It is the expectation of the Drafting Group and the Banking Commission that the application of the principles contained in the ISBP, including subsequent revisions thereof, will continue ring the time UCP 600 is in force. At the time UCP 600 is implemented, there will be an updated version of the ISBP to bring its contents in line with the substance and style of the new rules.
Comment:
Note that UCP600 does not automatically apply to a credit if the credit is silent as to which set of rules it is subject to. A credit issued by SWIFT MT700 is no longer subject by default to the current UCP – it has to be indicated in field 40E, which is designated for specifying the "applicable rules".
Where a credit is issued subject to UCP600, the credit will be interpreted in accordance with the entire set of 39 articles contained in UCP600. However, exception to the rules can be made by express modification or exclusion. For example, the parties to a credit may agree that the rest of the credit shall remain valid despite the beneficiary's failure to deliver an instalment. In such case, the credit has to nullify the effect of article 32 of UCP600, such as by wording the credit as: "The credit will continue to be available for the remaining instalments notwithstanding the beneficiary's failure to present complied documents of an instalment in accordance with the instalment schele."
eUCP
The eUCP was developed as a supplement to UCP e to the strong sense at the time that banks and corporates together with the transport and insurance instries were ready to utilise electronic commerce. The hope and expectation that surrounded the development of eUCP has failed to materialise into day to day transactions and its usage has been, to put it mildly, minimal. Owing to this lack of usage, it was felt that this was not the right time to incorporate the eUCP into the UCP600 and it will remain as a supplement albeit slightly amended to identify its relationship with UCP600.
An updated version of the eUCP came into effect on 1 July 2007 to coincide the commencement of the UCP600. There are no substantive changes to the eUCP, merely references to the UCP600.
CDCS
The Certified Documentary Credit Specialist is a qualification awarded by IFSA US and IFS UK and endorsed by ICC Paris as the only International qualification for Trade Finance Professionals, recognising the competence, and ensuring best practice. It requires Re-Certification every Three years. UCP 600 rules will be included from April 2008 examinations only. CDCS requires some 4–6 months of independent study and a pass in 3 hour examination of 120 multiple choice questions as well as 3 in basket exercises with questions which demonstrate skill in real-world applications of UCP.
4. 谁有 关于国际经济与贸易的英文参考文献 最好附带汉语翻译 3000字左右 可以发到我的邮箱[email protected]
At present, the world economy is moving to the new trend of regional blocs and economic integration.
Currently, the economic integration is graally breaking continental limits to the Pan-Africa direction.
The development of international economic integration will inevitably lead to deeper integration of its internal trade barriers and strengthening the al result of external, leading to non-group increasing competition among countries, protectionism is rampant. These are constraints of the international economy, especially the freedom of foreign economic development in developing countries.
5. 急求一篇 国际贸易出口问题的英文文献 5000英文单词左右 及其中文翻译
国际贸易相关英语词汇
accepting bank 承兑银行 adept 内行 alterated 冒充物
agreement 同意书 air parcel 航空邮包 amendment修正书
area 面积 bankrupt 破产 beneficiary 受益人
bilateral trade 双边贸易 bill of landing 提单 bill of exchange汇票
billing 开发票 blind competition恶性竞争 boom 生意兴隆
delay延误 shoes store 鞋子专卖店 breakage破损
air cargo 航空货运 certificate of origin原产地证明 bulk cargo 散装货
discount折扣 business is inactive 市面萧条 buyer买主
cancel 取消 can not afford 买不起 capacity 容积
capture market 争取市场 certificate fee 签证费 certificate of inspection检验证
claim 索赔 close 结关 close date 结关日
close door 歇业 collection 托收 confirm 确认
commercial credit 商用信用 commission 佣金 consignee 收货人
consumer 消费者 contract 合约 container 货柜
costprice 成本价 cost & freight 货运及运费 cost & insurance 货价及保险
cost insurance & freight (CIF)成本保险费加运费价 counter 货柜台
counterfeit 仿冒 customer 顾客 customs 海关
customer broker 报送行 dealer 贩卖商 deferred payment 延迟付款
deficit 亏空 delivery date 交货期 deliver from go down 出仓
department store 百货公司 depression 不景气 destination 目的地
direct trade 直接贸易 distribution 分销 documentary 押汇
documentary acceptance bill 承况汇单 documentary payment bill 付款汇单
double check 复查 drawee 付款人 mping 倾销
enlarge 扩充 export 出口 exporter 出口商
export declaration 出品申请书 faulty goods 劣足迹 foreign exchange 外汇
free on board (FOB，离岸价) gross weight 毛重 handle with care 小心轻放
horizontal competition 同业竞争 import 进口 importer 进口商
import permit 进品许可证 indirect trade 间接进口 inquiry sheet 询价单
inspector 验货员 inspection sheet 检验单 instalment 分期付款
international trade foreign trade 国际贸易 invoice 发票
limited price 限价 loading port 输出口岸 main mark 正唛
manufacture 制造 marg in profit 利润 managenment 管理制度
manufacturer 制造商 market 市价 mass proction 大量生产
multilateral trade 多边贸易 negotiated purchase 议价 netback price 厂价
net weight 净重 no transshipment permitted 不准转运
nominal price 标价 notary 公证人 offer 报价
on board 已装船 only one price 不二价 open tender 公开投标
order 订单 output 产量 packing list 包装单
partialloss 部分损失 payee 收款人 penalty 违约金，罚金
paying bank 付款银行 peak season 旺季 place of delivery 交货地点
post office 邮局 price bargain 讨价还价 price cutting 减价，削价
price list 价目表 process 流程 proction control 生产管制
proforma invoice（一般译为“形式发票”简写为“PI”） purchase 购买
quality control 品质管制 received for shipment 待装船 reced price 减价
regular customer 老主顾 reorganization 改组 repacking 改装
restricted tender 比价 resume business 复业 retail 零售
returned check 退票 retailer 零售商 sale 销售
rock bottom price 最低价 sale on credit 赊账 salesman 推销员
sea port 港口 service 服务 segment delivery 分批交货
shipper 货主 shipping advice 装船通知 shipping company 船务公司或海运公司 shipping date 装船日期 shipping dock 装船码头
shipping document 装船文件 shoddy 粗制滥造 unpacking开箱
shopping rush 抢购 shortage 缺量 yielding 获利
show window 橱窗 slack season 淡季 special customs invoice 海关特种发票 specification 规格 standard brand 正牌子
steady 稳定 stock 存货 stylist 款式设计师
supplier 供应商 supply & demand 供求 terminal market 批发市场
telegraphic transfer 电汇（T/T） time of delivery 交货日期 trade company 贸易公司
travelers checks 旅行支票 title 抬头 top quality 上等货
total loss 全部损失 trade mark 商标 trial order 试销货
unfavorable trade balance 逆差 uniform invoice 统一发票 unilateral trade 单边贸易
warehouse 仓库 unsaleable 滞结 upset price 底价
useful load 装载量 wholesaler 批发商 letter of credit 信用状
revocable letter of credit 取消信用状 irrevocable letter of credit 不可取消信用状
sight letter of credit 即期信用状 usance letter of credit 远期信用状
assignable letter credit 可转让信用状 unassignable letter of credit 不可转让信用状
destination 到达口岸 export declaration 出口申请表 quotation form 行情表
6. 求一篇关于金融类的英文参考文献
提供你的英文关键词，我给你找2010年以后的，还有大概需要多少页的文章？
7. 求一篇有国际贸易类的英文文献
你把文献给我吧 我帮你翻译
希望采纳
8. 求一篇5000字的英文翻译，关于国际金融与贸易的
, WTO accession on China's financial instry the great challenges
China's huge, high-speed growth of financial markets and lack of financial deepening, long-term policy to protect China's financial sector to foreign financial consortium constitute the immense attraction of trying to a good opportunity for China's accession to the WTO to enter China's financial market has been the focus of their efforts direction. The United States Commerce Secretary William Daley said the Sino-US WTO negotiations fell the most crucial questions, such as banking and insurance areas of financial services.
April 9, 1999, the United States Trade Representative Office unilaterally announced the so-called Chinese date for accession to WTO and the United States reached an open market protocol. These measures, according to the United States in China's accession to the WTO that it would begin to implement. In fact, these so-called Protocol of the United States in fact just the asking price, of which only the agricultural part of complete agreement, other not yet fully reached. The United States Trade Representative Office unilaterally announced the so-called China's accession to the WTO after the financial markets, the openness of the list, from which we can see that the United States and China, asking for specific financial services instry may be subject to the impact of the extent of:
(1) Banking
Between the two countries will continue negotiations on this project. However, China has agreed to join WTO, US-owned banks to foreign customers can immediately provide all the foreign exchange business. One year after WTO accession, the United States to the Chinese bank can provide customers with foreign exchange business, Sino-US joint-venture banks will be allowed to operate wholly foreign-owned banks will be allowed to operate at 5 years, foreign banks in two years will be allowed to conct RMB business at 5 During the year the finance retail business.
(2) the securities instry
At present, the securities, the Chinese will still insist open B-share market, but the A shares should not open. The U.S. side insists that the opening of the stock market. For this requirement, China still insists that financial sector liberalization must be graal and orderly progress, if we do not do so, it will be further subjected to the crisis in Southeast Asian countries to follow.
(3) the insurance instry
U.S. demands China's accession to the WTO, life insurance companies in the foreign shareholding ratio can be up to 50%, add a year later, increased to 51%. Non-life insurance companies and reinsurance companies will be allowed at a joint venture insurance companies hold 51 percent stake, and at two years to set up wholly-owned branch offices.
With China's accession to the WTO will become the truth, China is striving to provide open financial markets to prepare:
(1) Chinese department director has been fixed for the opening of RMB business timetable. Open RMB business faster than most people probably would exceed expectations, in the "foreseeable future" is very likely at all large and medium-sized city open RMB business.
(2) add at WTO, China will be the first to open RMB business in life insurance and property & casualty insurance market. As capital markets belong to the securities instry, opening up the speed will be relatively slow. March 20, the China Insurance Regulatory Commission Ma Yongwei, chairman, said the opening up of China's insurance market is a foregone conclusion in the near future, there will be a number of foreign insurance companies enter the Chinese market.
(3) foreign banks will be one year after China's accession to the WTO, China allowed to provide foreign exchange business customers, and two years later for the enterprise business to provide renminbi business activity, and after five years for Chinese indivials to provide financial services. People's Bank of China will be lifted this year, foreign banks operating branches geographical restrictions, from the current Shanghai, Beijing, Tianjin, Shenzhen and other 23 city extended to all central cities, while the United States formally approved the Shenzhen branch of Citibank, Bank of Tokyo JAPAN Shenzhen sub - Bank to conct RMB business.
(4) of the securities market, foreign capital eager to enter, but the domestic securities market is not mature enough, and the RMB is not freely convertible, direct foreign investment and opening up is unlikely, in recent years, the China Securities Regulatory Commission once the proposal to examine the formation of Sino-foreign joint investment fund the possibility of us to consider the form of foreign investment funds to enter and take the establishment of Sino-foreign cooperative fund the possibility of greatly.
From the above analysis we can already feel that China's accession to the WTO, China's financial instry by the face of international financial integration of the great challenges:
(1) China's financial instry in the long-term barriers to retaining a high degree of policy evaluation, the WT O to add a high degree of market competition after the situation has required a process of adaptation. Chinese bankers are much, for opening up banking reacted strongly consider in the next five years to completely open up the banking instry, time is very urgent. According to the World Bank has long been known as one pairs of Chinese banking instry experts Radi said that the need for around ten years, China's banking sector in order to prepare, in the face of foreign competition in the instry, and not in danger. First of all, the Chinese banking system has yet to be market-oriented reforms to further deepen, at present, four major Chinese state-owned commercial banks are all the Ministry of Finance, the national bank assets accounted for more than 90% of Shenzhen Development Bank are so far the only listed bank. Secondly, non-performing loans of domestic banks within five years, it is difficult to remove. National plans to discount the portion of the debt or sell securities, but this process may be will need to spend a few years or even longer. Reconstruction of the fragile Chinese banking system is that the Chinese Government to allow foreign financial institutions to gain full access to their markets, while domestic financial crisis will not lead to an important prerequisite.
(2) the financial services sector in our country's instry has been opening sequence in a relatively backward part of the opening of international financial competition environment has a process of adaptation. China's financial instry must be limited to opening up the market to prevent the Asian financial turmoil the price of a repeat in China.
(3) China's financial sector, especially state-owned commercial banks in the past the process of non-market operators have accumulated a lot of non-performing loans, which makes U.S. financial sector competition in the market relatively heavy historical burden.
Second, actively respond to
(1) Expand the financial inspection of assets and liabilities of financial institutions to find out the Chinese Government to further guard against financial risks, as well as opening up financial markets to meet the challenges faced, had started a period of 5 months of a general inspection of national financial work out a comprehensive financial institution's assets and the debt situation. Work focused on financial institutions to check the financial position and its non-performing assets in order to regulators of financial institutions nationwide to find out the true state of debt. This will not only help regulators assess the financial risks effectively, and to take appropriate response measures, the graal elimination of financial institutions, large non-performing assets.
(2) in an open domestic market before the director of China's financial department to deal with banks to restructure or to inject more funds into the bank to improve the operation and management principles and the rule of law and set up appropriate regulatory framework. Too fast, opening up the financial instry risk is probably much higher than the strength of foreign investment China's domestic financial system, we should fully absorb the lessons of the Asian crisis: liberalization in the financial instry before, we must strictly regulate the domestic financial system, commercial banks are required to have proper access to capital injection and operation and management.
(3) change their concepts, to face up to the international financial integration of great challenge. International financial integration is one of the world inevitable trend of economic development, we are opening up the financial instry overall strategy is unchanged, just add WTO so that the subject had placed earlier in front of us. At the previous monopoly of the soil protection grew up China's financial instry should face up to the international financial integration of the enormous challenges, we must seriously examine their own point whether there is really strong enough to contend with transnational corporations, the core of our competitiveness where扬长up short, a positive response.
一、加入WTO对中国金融业的巨大挑战
中国庞大的、高速增长的金融市场和金融深化不足、长期为政策 保护的中国金融业，对外国金融财团构成了巨大的吸引力，试图通过 中国加入WTO的良机进入中国金融市场一直是它们重点努力的方向。 美国商务部长戴利称，中美入世谈判最关键的问题落在银行和保险等 金融服务领域中。
1999年4月9日，美国贸易代表处单方面公布了所谓中国迄今为加 入WTO与美国达成的市场开放协议。这些措施据美国称将在中国加入 WTO时开始实施。其实这些所谓的协议实际上只是美国的要价，其中 只有农业部分完全达成协议，其他仍未完全达成。美国贸易代表处单 方面公布了所谓中国加入WTO后金融市场开放程度一览表，我们从中 可以看到美国具体的要价和中国金融业可能会受到的冲击程度：
(1)银行业
两国仍继续此项目的谈判。但中国已经同意，加入WTO后，美资 银行可立即向外国客户提供所有外汇业务。加入WTO一年后，美国的 银行可向中国客户提供外汇业务，中美合资的银行将立即获准经营， 外国独资银行将在5年内获准经营，外资银行在二年内将获准经营人 民币业务，在5年内经营金融零售业务。
(2)证券业
目前就证券而言，中国坚持仍然会开放B股市场，但是A股不能开 放。美方则坚持提出开放整个证券市场。对于这个要求，中国仍然坚 持金融部门的开放必须循序渐进，如果不这样作，就将步遭受危机的 东南亚国家后尘。
(3)保险业
美方要求中国加入WTO后，人寿保险公司中外资持股比例可高达 50％，加入一年后，提高至51％。非人寿保险公司和再保险公司将获 准在合资保险公司中持有51％的股份，并可在二年内成立全资的分支 机构。
随着中国加入世贸组织将成事实，中国也正为开放金融市场做好 准备：
(1)中国主管部门已订出开放人民币业务的时间表。人民币业务 开放速度之快可能会超出多数人的预期，在“可见的未来”极有可能 在所有大中城市开放人民币业务。
(2)在加入WTO后，中国将首先开放人民币业务寿险及产险市场。 至于属于资本市场的证券业，开放的速度则会相对较慢。3月20日， 中国保险监督管理委员会主席马永伟表示，中国保险市场的开放大局 已定，在不久的将来，会有多家外国保险公司进入中国市场。
(3)外资银行将在中国加入WTO一年后，获准为中国客户提供外汇 业务，两年后可为企业商务活动提供人民币业务，而五年后可为中国 个人提供金融服务。中国人民银行今年将取消外资银行营业性分支机 构地域限制，从现在的上海、北京、天津、深圳等23个城市扩大到所 有中心城市，同时正式批准美国花旗银行深圳分行、日本东京银行深 圳分行经营人民币业务。
(4)证券市场方面，外资渴望进入，但国内证券市场并不成熟， 而且人民币尚不能自由兑换，直接开放外资进入的可能性不大，近年 来中国证监会曾经提出研究组建中外合作投资基金的可能性，我们认 为以基金的形式吸收外资进入，采取组建中外合作基金形式的可能性 极大。
我们从上述分析中已经可以感受到中国加入WTO后，中国金融业 所面对国际金融一体化的巨大挑战：
(1)中国金融业长期处于高度的政策壁垒护估之下，对于加入WT O后高度的市场竞争形势需要有个适应过程。 中国许多银行业人士，对于对外开放银行业务反应强烈，认为在 五年内彻底开放银行业，时间是十分急迫的。据世界银行一位对中国 银行业素有研究的专家拉迪指出，大约需要十年，中国银行业才能作 好准备，面对国外同业的竞争，而不致于陷入险境。首先，中国银行 业体制的市场化改革仍有待进一步深化，目前，中国四大国有商业银 行属财政部所有，占全国银行资产的90％以上，深圳发展银行是至今 唯一上市的银行。其次，国内银行不良贷款在五年内难以清除。国家 计划将这部分债务以折价或证券化的方式出售，但此过程也许将需花 上数年甚至更长。重建中国脆弱的银行系统，是中国政府允许外国金 融机构完全进入本国市场，而不致引发国内金融危机的重要先决条件 。
(2)金融业在我国的行业对外开放序列中一直处于较后的部分， 对开放后的国际金融竞争环境也有个适应过程。中国金融业必须有限 制地向外开放市场，以防止亚洲金融风暴的代价在中国重演。
(3)中国金融业特别是国有商业银行在过去的非市场经营过程中 累积了不少不良贷款，这使我们的金融业在市场竞争中历史包袱比较 重。
二、积极应对
(1)展开金融大检查，摸清金融机构资产负债 中国政府为进一步防范金融风险，以及迎接金融市场开放所面临 的挑战，已开始展开为期5个月的全国金融大检查工作，全面摸清金 融机构的资产和债务状况。工作重点在于检查金融机构的财务状况及 其不良资产，以便监管机构能摸清全国金融机构债务的真实状况。此 举不仅有助于监管部门能有效评估金融风险，并可采取适当的应对措 施，逐步消除金融机构庞大的不良资产。
(2)在开放国内市场以前，中国金融主管部门应对银行进行重组 或增加注资，改进银行经营管理方针，并建立适当的法治和规范框架 。过快开放金融业的风险在于外资实力可能大大超过中国国内金融体 系，我们应该充分吸取亚洲危机的教训：在金融业自由化前，必须对 国内金融系统严格规范，商业银行必须妥善获得资本金注入及经营管 理。
(3)转变观念，正视国际金融一体化的巨大挑战。国际金融一体 化是世界经济发展的必然趋势，我们金融业的对外开放的总方略是不 变的，加入WTO只是使这一课题提早摆到了我们的面前。以往在垄断 保护的土壤中成长起来的中国金融业应该正视国际金融一体化的巨大 挑战，要认真审视自己究竟有哪一点足以与真正强大的跨国公司抗衡， 我们的核心竞争力在何处，扬长补短，积极应对。
9. 谁有国际贸易 国际金融方面的专业英语资料
首先，建议你下载高盛财经词典。
其次，你可以把邮箱给我，我发一些internantional trade&internantional finance的全英文课件给你。里面有名词解释。
最后，我可以给你一些internantional finance的双语名词解释给你。
Professonal terms
1、balance of payments; 贸易支付差额a system of recording all of a country's economic transactions with the rest of the world over a period of one year
2、the current account; the current account is one of the two primary components of the balance of payments：货物、服务、收入和经常转移。
3、the capital account; It is the sum of the balance of trade (exports minus imports of goods and services)
资本与金融账户（Capital and Financial Account）与经常账户相对，国际收支上本国与外国之间资本流动的记录，反映本国资产和负债状况的变动，包含贷款和投资相关的资本流动。
4、the double-entry bookkeeping; The basic principle of double entry bookkeeping is that every transaction has a twofold effect.复式记账法的基本原理是每笔交易都有借贷双方。This system is called double-entry because each transaction is recorded in at least two accounts. Each transaction results in at least one account being debited and at least one account being credited, with the total debits of the transaction equal to the total credits
5、merchandise trade balance; 商品贸易的平衡The Merchandise Trade Balance is a measure of "visible" trade
6、 current account balance; 经常账目平衡The current account balance is the difference between a country's savings and its investment指对实际资源的流动行为进行记录的帐户，包括：货物、服务、收入和经常转移。
7、The overall balance; 综合平衡 An overall measurement of a country's private financial and economic transactions with the rest of the world
8、the official reserve asset balance; 官方储备。官方储备是指一个国家由官方所持有的国际储备资产，包括黄金、外汇和特别提款权。一个国家在一定时期的国际收支不可能完全平衡，总会发生差额。如果不平衡，就要通过动用官方储备，来弥补或轧平这个时期国际收支的差额，实现该时期国际收支的平衡。
9、the Errors and Omissions; 错误与遗漏(0) Error & Omission insurance protects a business professional whose clients could claim damages as a result of business professional's faulty performance.
10.residents;
11.the international investment position; 国际投资头寸 外汇头寸——是指外汇银行所持有的各种外币帐户余额状况，即外汇银行
的外汇买卖的余缺状况。A country's international investment position (IIP) is a financial statement setting out the value and composition of that country's external financial assets and liabilities.
12.the IMF; The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organization that oversees the global financial system by following the macroeconomic policies of its member countries, in particular those with an impact on exchange rates and the balance of payments. It also offers financial and technical assistance to its members, making it an international lender of last resort. Its headquarters are located in Washington, D.C., USA. 国际货币基金组织（或国际货币基金，英文简称：IMF）是国际金融组织，职责是通过监察货币汇率和各国贸易情况、以及提供技术和资金协助，确保全球金融制度运作正常。1945年12月27日正式成立。总部设在华盛顿
13.the reserve position in the IMF; 国际货币基金有储备金，供国家借用，以在短时间内稳定货币；做法类似在往来户口中透支。所借款项必须于5年内清还。
14.SDRs 特别提款权（special drawing right,SDR)是国际货币基金组织创设的一种储备资产和记帐单位，亦称“纸黄金(Paper Gold)”。它是基金组织分配给会员国的一种使用资金的权利。会员国在发生国际收支逆差时，可用它向基金组织指定的其他会员国换取外汇，以偿付国际收支逆差或偿还基金组织的贷款，还可与黄金、自由兑换货币一样充当国际储备。但由于其只是一种记帐单位，不是真正货币，使用时必须先换成其他货币，不能直接用于贸易或非贸易的支付。因为它是国际货币基金组织原有的普通提款权以外的一种补充，所以称为特别提款权（SDR）。
15.foreign exchange; 外汇 foreign exchange (FX市场)通常指以外国货币表示的可用于国际结算的各种支付手段。包括:外国货币、外币存款、外币有价证券(政府公债、国库券、公司债券、股票等)、外币支付凭证(票据、银行存款凭证、邮政储蓄凭证等)。
16.exchange rate; 汇率 (exchange rate) 【概念】 汇率亦称“外汇行市或汇价”。一国货币兑换另一国货币的比率,是以一种货币表示另一种货币的价格。
17.spot exchange rate; 即期汇率
现汇汇率：分买入汇率和卖出汇率。买入汇率（ByyingRate)又称外汇买入价，是指银行向客户买入外汇时所使用的汇率。一般地，外币折合本币数较少的那个汇率是买入汇率，它表示买入一定数额的外汇需要付出多少本国货币。卖出汇率（sellingRate）又称外汇卖出价，是指银行向客户卖出外汇时所使用的汇率。一般地，外币折合本币数较多的那个汇率是卖出汇率，它表示银行卖出一定数额的外汇需要收回多少本国货币。
18.forward exchange; 远期汇率
外汇期货是交易双方约定在未来某一时间，依据现在约定的比例，以一种货币交换另一种货币的标准化合约的交易。是指以汇率为标的物的期货合约，用来回避汇率风险。
19.intangible market; 无形资产，是指企业拥有或者控制的没有实物形态的可. 辨认非货币性资产。
20.a vehicle currency;
21.SWIFT (Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunications); SWIFT全世界银行间金融电信学会是一个协作组织，它运营着世界级的金融电文网络，银行和其他金融机构通过它与同业交换电文（message），从而完成金融交易。除此之外，SWIFT还向金融机构销售软件和服务，其中大部分的用户都在使用SWIFT网络。到2006年4月为止，SWIFT的服务已经遍及205个国家，接入的金融机构超过7800家。
22.CHIPS (Clearing House International Payments System);
23. floating exchange rate; 1. 概念:一国货币当局不再规定本国货币与外国货币比价和汇率波动的幅度，货币当局也不承担维持汇率波动界限的义务，而听任汇率随外汇市场供求变化自由波动的一种汇率制度。
24.the equilibrium exchange rate;
25.fixed exchange rate; 这种制度规定本国货币与其他国家货币之间维持一个固定比率，汇率波动只能限制在一定范围内，由官方干预来保证汇率的稳定。
26.the band of exchange rate;
27.par value; Par value, in finance and accounting, means stated value or face value.
28.the appreciation; 升值
29.the depreciation; 贬值
30.the revaluation;货币升值
31.the devaluation; 货币贬值 货币贬值（又称通货贬值），是货币升值的对称，是指单位货币所含有的价值或所代表的价值的下降，即单位货币价格下降货币贬值可以从不同角度来理解。
32.arbitrage; 套利( spreads):
指同时买进和卖出两张不同种类的期货合约。交易者买进自认为是"便宜的"合约，同时卖出那些"高价的"合约，从两合约价格间的变动关系中获利。在进行套利时，交易者注意的是合约之间的相互价格关系，而不是绝对价格水平。套利Arbitrage：试图利用不同市场或不同形式的同类或相似金融产品的价格差异牟利。最理想的状态是无风险套利。In economics and finance, arbitrage is the practice of taking advantage of a price differential between two or more markets:
33.biangular arbitrage;两角套利 假设在不考虑交易费用的情况下，纽约市场上美元对欧元的汇率是0，61， 而在伦敦市场上美元对欧元是0.65， 这样就出现了两角套利的机会， 在纽约市场买入欧元然后在伦敦市场上卖出， 在这里能产生4%的利润在每卖出去的欧元。 但是这种个行动会导致纽约市场上欧元的需求量增加导致美元对欧元的汇率升高， 例如到0.63；另一方面， 在伦敦市场上欧元的供给增加导致汇率下降，例如0.63. 这些套利的行动最终使得美元对欧元的汇率相符合。
34.triangular arbitrage; 三角套利
35.basic rates; 基本汇率（也叫直盘或基础汇率）：一般指一国货币与美元的比价。
36.cross rates交叉汇率（也叫交叉盘）：是指两种非美元货币之间的比价，交叉汇率可从基本汇率套算而来。
套汇率 - 任何两种货币间的汇率，这两种货币在给出这对货币对报价的国家被认为是非标准的。比如，在美国，英镑/日元的报价可能被看作一种套汇率，然而在英国或日本它可能是交易中主要的货币对之一。
37.exchange rate risk; 汇率风险:又称外汇风险,指经济主体持有或运用外汇的经济活动中,因汇率变动而蒙受损失的可能性。
38.international financial investment; 国际投资（International Investment）,又称对外投资（Foreign Investment）或海外投资（Overseas Investment），是指跨国公司等国际投资主体，将其拥有的货币资本或产业资本，通过跨国界流动和营运，以实现价值增值的经济行为。
39.international investment with cover;
40.international investment without cover;
41.hedging; 对冲交易即同时进行两笔行情相关、方向相反、数量相当、盈亏相抵的交易。
42. hedgers;
43.speculating;投机投机(Speculation)指根据对市场的判断，把握机会，利用市场出现的价差进行买卖从中获得利润的交易行为。
44. speculators;投机者
45. the forward premium; 升水率
46.the forward discount; 贴税率
贴水值,贴水率,.和升水值,升水率如果是指外汇方面：
远期差价有两种，升水和贴水，在直接标价法（1外币＝n人民币）下外汇贴水意味着外汇在远期贬值，人民币升值，贴水值就是外汇贬值多少基点（一般将0.0001，日元为0.01称为1基点），例如现在即期汇率$1=￥7.7613，假设1个月后为$1=￥7.7583，那么美元贴水值为30点，贴水率为0.003/7.7613。
升水则是与之相反的概念
47.covered interest arbitrage; 抵补套利(Covered Arbitrage)是指把资金调往高利率货币国家或地区的同时，在外汇市场上卖出远期高利率货币，即在进行套利的同时做掉期交易，以避免汇率风险。实际上这就是套期保值，一般的套利保值交易多为抵补套利。
48.uncovered interest arbitrage; 不抵补套利（uncovered interest arbitrage）指把资金从利率低的货币转向利率高的货币，从而谋取利率的差额收入。这种交易不必同时进行反方向交易轧平头寸，但这种交易要承担高利率货币贬值的风险。。
49.covered interest parity; 套补的利率平价。假定iA是A 国货币的利率，iB是B国货币的利率，p是即期远期汇率的升跌水平。假定投资者采取持有远期合约的套补方式交易时，市场最终会使利率与汇率间形成下列关系：p = iA − iB。其经济含义是：汇率的远期升贴水平等于两国货币利率之差。在套补利率平价成立时，如果A 国利率高于B国利率，则A 国远期汇率必将升水，A国货币在远期市场上将贬值。反之亦然。汇率的变动会抵消两国间的利率差异，从而使金融市场处于平衡状态。
50. uncovered interest parity非套补的利率平价。假定投资者根据自己对未来汇率变动的预期而计算预期的收益，在承担一定的汇率风险情况下进行投资活动。假定，Ep表示预期的汇率远期变动率，则Ep = iA − iB。其经济含义是：远期的汇率预期变动率等于两国货币利率之差。在非套补利率平价成立时，如果A国利率高于B国利率，则意味着市场预期A国货币在远期将贬值。
51.PPP; 购买力平价理论 两国货币的汇率主要是由两国货币的购买力决定的。
52.the law of one price; 一价定律可表述为：当贸易开放且交易费用为尽时，同样酌货物无论在何地销售，其价格都相同* 国际金融中的“一价定律”是指：一种商品在各国间的价值是一致的，即是说，通过汇率折算之后的标价是一致的，若在各国间存在价格差异，则会发生商品国际贸易，直到价差被消除，贸易停止，这时达到商品市场的均衡状态。该定律适用于商品市场，与之相似的适用于资本市场的定律是利息平价理论。
53.absolute PPP;
绝对购买力平价认为：一国货币的价值及对它的需求是由单位货币在国内所能买到的商品和劳务的量决定的，即由它的购买力决定的
54.relative PPP; 相对购买力平价弥补了绝对购买力平价一些不足的方面。它的主要观点可以简单地表述为：两国货币的汇率水平将根据两国通胀率的差异而进行相应地调整。 它表明两国间的相对通货膨胀决定两种货币间的均衡汇率。
55.overshooting; 汇率超调（Sticky-Price Monetary Approach/Overshooting）是由美国经济学家鲁迪格•多恩布什(Rudiger•Dornbusch)于20世纪70年代提出的。又称为汇率决定的粘性价格货币分析法
所谓超调通常是指一个变量对给定扰动做出的短期反应超过了其长期稳定均衡值，并因而被一个相反的调节所跟随。导致这种现象出现的起因在于商品市场上的价格存在“粘性”或者“滞后”的特点。56.bandwagon effects; 流行影响或羊群效应The bandwagon effect, also known as social proof or "cromo effect" and closely related to opportunism, is the observation that people often do and believe things because many other people do and believe the same things. “羊群效应”也称“从众心理”。是指管理学上一些企业的市场行为的一种常见现象。
经济学里经常用“羊群效应”来描述经济个体的从众跟风心理。羊群是一种很散乱的组织，平时在一起也是盲目地左冲右撞，但一旦有一只头羊动起来，其他的羊也会不假思索地一哄而上，全然不顾前面可能有狼或者不远处有更好的草。因此，“羊群效应”就是比喻人都有一种从众心理，从众心理很容易导致盲从，而盲从往往会陷入骗局或遭到失败。 57.bubbles; 泡沫经济：虚拟资本过度增长与相关交易持续膨胀日益脱离实物资本的增长和实业部门的成长，金融证券、地产价格飞涨，投机交易极为活跃的经济现象。泡沫经济寓于金融投机，造成社会经济的虚假繁荣，最后必定泡沫破灭，导致社会震荡，甚至经济崩溃。
58. nominal bilateral exchange rate;名义双边汇率
59. nominal effective exchange rate;名义有效汇率
名义汇率和实际汇率
名义汇率就是现实中的货币兑换比率，它可能由市场决定，也可能由官方制定。名义汇率是两种货币之间的双边汇率，运用名义汇率值的变化说明汇率的变动幅度和趋势存在一定的局限性。实际汇率是名义汇率用两国价格水平调整后的汇率，即外国商品与本国商品的相对价格，反映了本国商品的国际竞争力。
60. real bilateral exchange rate; 实际双边汇率
61.real effective exchange rate实际有效汇率
Real Effective Exchange Rate （REER）
名义汇率是又称“市场汇率”。“实际汇率”的对称。一种货币能兑换另一种货币的数量的名义汇率，通常是先设定一个特殊的货币加美元、特别提款权作为标准，然后确定与此种货币的汇率。汇率依美元、特别提款权的币值变动而变动。名义汇率不能反映两国货币的实际价值，是随外汇市场上外汇供求变动而变动而变动的外汇买卖价格。
名义有效汇率是对所有双边汇率按照贸易金额进行加权平均计算出来的汇率；实际有效汇率是在名义有效汇率的基础上，对双边的通胀水平予以剔除。事实上，在经常账户的盈余或赤字、一国的竞争力的决定方面，真正起作用的是实际有效汇率。
实际汇率最普通的定义是指两国商品和劳务的相对价格，即是相对于本国的商品和劳务而言，外国商品和劳务以本币表示的价格。若实际汇率上升，意味着外国商品和劳务的本币价格相对上涨，本币在外国的购买力相对下降，本币实际贬值，外币实际升值；若实际汇率下降，意味着外国商品和劳务的本币价格相对下降，本币在外国的购买力相对上升，本币实际升值，外币实际贬值。
人民币实际汇率的具体计算公式如下：
REER＝（ER×CPI*）/ CPI （1）
其中：ER表示中美双边名义汇率，REER的人民币兑美元双边名义汇率（ER），CPI为以**年为基期的中国消费物价指数，根据中国统计年鉴和统计公报中的环比CPI换算所得；CPI*为以**年为基期的美国城市消费物价指数，根据美国劳工部**年的定基CPI换算所得。
62.convertible currency; 货币自由兑换（Currency Convertibility） 货币自由兑换是指在一个统一的或健全的国际货币体系下，一国货币与他国货币可以通过某种兑换机制自由地交换。63.exchange control; 外汇管制 Foreign exchange control
指一国或经济体对本币与外国货币在境内的自由兑换施加限制和干预的强制政策，以达到维持本国货币币值稳定和实现国际收支平衡等目的。
64.a clean float; 浮动汇率制度的一种，亦称清洁浮动。是指一国的货币汇率完全由外汇市场的供求关系决定，货币当局不采取斜体干预本币汇率波动的措施。
65.a dirty float; 肮脏互动汇率制/有管理浮动汇率制(dirty float/managed float)
指一种官方不公开汇率目标的汇率制度。中央银行或货币当局通过干预外汇市场以使汇率维持在其不公开的目标水平，而目标水平可能会随环境的变化而改变。
66. a managed float; 由政府操纵的汇率浮动
67.adjustable peg; 可调整的钉住汇率制（adjustable pegged exchange rates,Adjustable Peg）可调整的钉住汇率制概述
通常，各国既不会采用完全的固定汇率制，也不会完全让汇率由市场的供求力量来决定，而是有限度地追求汇率的灵活性，就是所谓的可调整的钉住汇率制。
可调整的钉住汇率制（adjustable pegged exchange rates）源于1944的布雷顿森林协定(Bretton Woods system)。在这种体制中，各国的汇率既可以保持稳定又可以具有灵活性。在短期，各国可以使用外汇稳定基金把汇率维持在固定的水平；而在长期，则通过贬值和升值保持收支平衡。
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68.crawling peg; 爬行钉住汇率制(crawling peg) 爬行钉住汇率制概述
爬行钉住汇率制是固定汇率制和浮动汇率制的折中，其含义是一国对货币平价进行细微的、经常性的调整，扭转一国的国际收支失衡，是将汇率钉住某种平价，但根据一组选定的指标频繁地、小幅度地调整所钉住平价的一种汇率安排。赤字国和盈余国都会一直调整汇率水平，直到满意为止。并且平价的变动分许多小步进行，汇率的调整尽可能地接近连续。其调整是按照这些指示变量来进行的：相对于主要贸易伙伴国的本国价格的变化；外汇储备水平；出口业绩；国际收支经常账户的状况。巴西、阿根廷、智利等国家使用该制度。 爬行制的基本思想是：一国可以小幅度地、经常地调整平价，一年可以调整几次，使平价按市场条件的变化缓慢爬行。
69.reserve currencies; 储备货币储备货币是指中央银行长期持有的具备国际清偿力的货币。
70.foreign exchange market intervention; 外汇市场干预
外汇市场干预是指中央银行(或货币当局)为管理本国货币的汇率,在外汇市场上进行的外汇买卖.其中包括外汇市场干预的目标选择、干预的组织、干预的途径、干预的频度等
71.sterilized intervention; 外汇冲销干预
“中和干预”又叫冲销式干预，它是政府管理汇率的重要政策之一，也称冲销政策。它是指中央银行进行数量相等但方向相反的国外和国内资产交易，以抵消外汇干预对国内货币供给的影响。72.non-sterilized intervention; 非冲销干预
非冲销式干预就是指中央银行在干预外汇市场时不采取其他金融政策与之配合,即不改变因外汇干预而造成的货币供应量的变化.
73. gold standard; 金本位制就是以黄金为本位币的货币制度。在金本位制下，或每单位的货币价值等同于若干重量的黄金（即货币含金量）；当不同国家使用金本位时，国家之间的汇率由它们各自货币的含金量之比--金平价（Gold Parity）来决定。
74. the Bretton Woods system; 布雷顿森林货币体系是指战后以美元为中心的国际货币体系。75.“two-tier” gold price system. 双重金价制
双重金价制. two-tier gold system. 为保护国际货币储备不受金价高涨压力的影响而作出的安排。